Exam 4: Cicero

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -According to Cicero, immorality is __________, and expediency is __________.

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -To illustrate the attempt to do injustice with impunity, Cicero considers the story of:

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Write an essay describing the four virtues that Cicero argues are the sources of our moral duties. Describe each virtue and give an example of what kind of behavior would arise from it. Do you think that all four of these are genuine virtues? Do you think there are any important virtues that Cicero fails to consider?

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero claims that our moral obligations are ultimately grounded in:

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -In Cicero's view, acts of kindness should be:

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero claims that we should follow both the universal laws of human nature and the bent of our particular nature.

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -According to Cicero, there is nothing so proper as:

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -According to Cicero, moral rightness is concerned with:

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero claims that moral rightness and expedience can never conflict with one another. What does he mean by this, and how does he argue for it? Do you think this view is correct? If so, why? If not, can you think of any counterexamples?

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -According to Cicero, the study of moral duties is important but limited in its practical application.

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Describe the story of the ring of Gyges. What conclusions does Cicero draw about the story? Do you agree with his assessment?

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -According to Cicero, nothing can be expedient without being morally right.