Exam 9: Joseph Butler

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -According to Butler, all of our various passions are naturally subordinate to:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler argues that loving our enemies requires:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler claims that, strictly speaking, the only thing that anyone has a right to is:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler claims that the commandment to "love thy neighbor as thyself" is:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler claims that in the strictest and most proper sense, to follow nature is to:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler argues that our happiness consists in:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Write an essay comparing and contrasting Butler's view of human nature with that of Hobbes. Explain each view, taking note of their similarities and differences. Which do you think is closer to the truth, and why?

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler claims that the principles of passion and of cool self-love differ not only in degree, but also in kind.

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -What does it mean to act according to nature, in Butler's view? Is it always desirable to act naturally in this sense? Defend your answer.

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -According to Butler, it is wrong or contrary to moral law to seek revenge or retaliate against our enemies. What is Butler's argument for this claim? Is his argument convincing? Why or why not?

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler claims that if we were to feel an equal amount of affection for others as we feel for ourselves, our actions would:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler argues that the belief that there is a conflict between public goods and private goods arises from our notions of:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -According to the scripture that Butler discusses in Sermon One, human beings are:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler argues that reason, passion, and appetite are principles with equal strength.

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler claims that every human being is a law to himself.

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Explain Butler's account of virtue and vice. What is it to act according to nature, on his view, and what relationship does he see between acting naturally and acting virtuously? Is Butler's theory satisfactory? Why or why not?

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler argues that the pursuit of public goods and the pursuit of private goods:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler claims that the passions of human beings primarily lead us to do evil deeds.

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler claims disgrace is avoided as much as:

Joseph Butler: Fifteen Sermons Butler begins by providing a nuanced account of human nature. Arguing against the egoism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Butler argues that human beings act from a wide variety of motivations, or "principles" of action. In addition to a natural feeling of self-love, Butler argues that humans naturally feel benevolence for others, esteem for others and desire of esteem for ourselves, love of society, and indignation at successful vice. Furthermore, although we might do harm to one another when our desires are unchecked, Butler claims that no person acts simply from ill-will for another person. Examination of all of these particular appetites and affections leads to the conclusion that human beings are designed not merely to seek their own gratification, but also to pursue the public good. Indeed, Butler argues, human nature is such that there can be no conflict between public and private good-duty and self-interest are always perfectly aligned. Butler then presents his account of the nature of duty. Morality requires each of us to act according to nature, not in the sense that we act on our strongest inclinations, but rather that we act on our highest inclination. For Butler, this is conscience, an innate capacity for reflection that passes judgments on our actions and deems them right or wrong, regardless of whether we desire them. Lastly, Butler examines two familiar biblical commandments: to love our enemies and to love our neighbors as we love ourselves. Regarding the first, Butler explains that loving our enemies forbids us from seeking revenge or harboring excessive resentment against those who injures us. Butler concedes that this can be difficult in practice, but can be made easier if we remain mindful of our own faults and the way anger and the partialities of self-love often lead us to exaggerate or misjudge our injuries. Regarding the second, Butler argues that if we interpreted this commandment to mean merely that we must feel as much affection for others as we feel for ourselves, then our actions would still be largely self-regarding, for much of what we do springs not from self-interest but from our various desires of external objects. Butler therefore recommends that we devote as much care and thought to the fortunes of others as we are able. -Butler claims that we often exaggerate or misunderstand our injuries because of: