Exam 4: Cicero

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero claims good men would do unjust acts if they could be sure they would not be punished.

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Question 1

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Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -What are the four sources of an action being morally right, according to Cicero? Describe each source. Do you think these four sources can account for all of our obligations? Why or why not?

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Question 2

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The four sources of an action being morally right, according to Cicero, are the virtues of wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance.

1. Wisdom: This virtue requires the pursuit of truth and knowledge. It is morally right to act in accordance with wisdom because it leads to a better understanding of the world and allows for informed decision-making.

2. Justice: This virtue involves giving each person their due and treating others with the generosity necessary for social cooperation. Acting in accordance with justice is morally right because it promotes fairness and harmony within society.

3. Courage: This virtue requires developing a noble and invincible spirit that does not give in to fear of danger. Acting with courage is morally right because it allows individuals to face challenges and adversity with strength and resilience.

4. Temperance: This virtue involves exercising moderation and self-control in matters relating to bodily appetites. Acting with temperance is morally right because it promotes balance and restraint in one's actions.

While these four virtues encompass a wide range of moral obligations, it is possible that they may not account for all of our obligations. For example, there may be moral obligations that arise from other sources such as empathy, compassion, or duty to others. Additionally, different cultures and ethical systems may recognize different sources of moral rightness. Therefore, while the four virtues outlined by Cicero provide a strong foundation for moral action, they may not be exhaustive in accounting for all of our moral obligations.

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -What does Cicero think is the relationship between moral rightness and expedience? How does he argue for this view? Are his arguments compelling? Defend your answer.

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Question 3

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Cicero believes that the relationship between moral rightness and expedience is that they can never diverge. He argues that what is morally right is always expedient, and what is expedient is always morally right. He supports this view by stating that the virtues mentioned in the first book, such as justice and courage, contribute to expedience because they are necessary for social cooperation and the well-being of all parties. He also argues that immorality is repugnant to Nature, while expedience is in accordance with Nature, so they can never be in conflict.

Cicero's arguments are compelling in the sense that he provides a clear and logical reasoning for his view. He appeals to the laws of Nature and the necessity of social cooperation to support his claim that moral rightness and expedience are inherently linked. However, some may find his arguments to be based on a specific philosophical framework that not everyone may agree with. Additionally, his claim that even considering the possibility of divergence between moral rightness and expedience is immoral may be seen as overly rigid and not accounting for complex real-life situations.

In conclusion, while Cicero's arguments for the relationship between moral rightness and expedience are well-reasoned and supported, they may not be universally compelling to all individuals due to their reliance on specific philosophical principles and the potential oversimplification of moral and practical considerations.

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -According to Cicero, any defect known to the vender must be:

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Question 4

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -In Cicero's view, the duties of the young are exactly the same as the duties of the old.

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Question 5

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero claims that when we act:

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Question 6

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -In Cicero's view, it is immoral to even consider an action that one knows to be a crime.

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Question 7

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero claims that acts of injustice are usually motivated by:

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Question 8

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero argues that we will never go morally astray if we:

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Question 9

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -What does Cicero mean by expedience? What sorts of activities does he think are expedient and why? Do you find his views on this matter plausible?

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Question 10

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero claims that it is sometimes permissible to:

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Question 11

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero claims that expedience is repugnant to Nature.

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Question 12

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -What is it for an action to be morally right, on Cicero's view? Contrast Cicero's view with another theory about the foundations of ethics. Which view do you think is more plausible and why?

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Question 13

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -According to Cicero, good men do not weigh considerations of moral rightness against considerations of expedience.

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Question 14

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero claims that what is just is always expedient.

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Question 15

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -Cicero claims that there could be "no more pernicious doctrine" than the idea that:

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Question 16

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -According to Cicero, it is expedient to be:

(Multiple Choice)

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Question 17

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -By "expedient," Cicero means:

(Multiple Choice)

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(77)

Question 18

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -According to Cicero, nature sometimes leads us astray.

(True/False)

4.9/5

(78)

Question 19

Cicero: On Duties Cicero's discussion of duties is divided into three books. In the first book, he discusses the nature of moral rightness. For Cicero, an action is morally right if and only if it is in accordance with the laws of Nature. All of our moral obligations arise from the demands of four virtues. The virtue of wisdom requires that we pursue truth and knowledge. The virtue of justice requires giving each person his due, and treating others with the generosity that is required to facilitate social cooperation. The virtue of courage requires developing a "noble and invincible spirit" that does not give in to fear of danger. Finally, the virtue of temperance requires us to exercise moderation and self-control in matters relating to our bodily appetites. These four virtues together comprise the virtue of propriety. In Cicero's view, all that is proper is morally right, and all that is morally right is proper. In the second book, Cicero discusses expedience, which concerns matters related to the comforts of life, including wealth, influence, and enjoyment. Cicero argues that the virtues mentioned in book one contribute to expedience. Justice, for example, is expedient because it is necessary for social cooperation, which benefits all parties. In the third book, Cicero argues further that the requirements of moral rightness and expedience can never diverge. Indeed, he suggests, even considering the possibility that they could diverge is immoral. He argues for this claim on the basis of his views concerning the laws of Nature. Immorality, Cicero claims, is repugnant to Nature. But because expedience is in accordance with Nature, expedience can never be immoral and immorality can never be expedient. Furthermore, acting immorally debases the moral character of the agent, which Cicero claims is the worst punishment of all. Cicero concludes his discussion with a number of examples intended to show that what is expedient always coincides with what is morally right. -According to Cicero, the heaviest penalty of all is:

(Multiple Choice)

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Question 20

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Epictetus

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Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Hobbes

Joseph Butler

David Hume

Immanuel Kant

Jeremy Bentham

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Henry Sidgwick

Friedrich Nietzsche

G.E.Moore

H.A.Prichard

A.J.Ayer

C.L.Stevenson

John Dewey

R.M.Hare

J.J.C.Smart

Bernard Williams

W.D.Ross

John Rawls

David Gauthier

T.M.Scanlon

Barbara Herman

Philippa Foot

Christine Korsgaard

Thomas Nagel

Susan Wolf

Jean-Paul Sartre

G.E.M.Anscombe

Julia Annas

Nomy Arpaly

Virginia Held

Gilbert Harman

J.L.Mackie

Walter Sinnott-Armstrong

Mary Midgley

James Rachels

Judith Jarvis Thomson

Don Marquis

James Rachels

Philippa Foot

Peter Singer

Travis Timmerman

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Henry Shue

Karen Hanson

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Celia Wolf-Devine

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Judith Jarvis Thomson

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