Exam 15: The Ferment of Reform and Culture,1790-1860

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Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) was an American essayist, lecturer, philosopher, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. He was seen as a champion of individualism and a prescient critic of the countervailing pressures of society. Emerson is best known for his work as a leader of the transcendentalist movement and for his essays, especially "Self-Reliance," "Nature," and "The American Scholar," which articulated his philosophical beliefs.

The historical significance of Ralph Waldo Emerson can be outlined as follows:

1. Transcendentalism: Emerson is often considered the central figure in the American transcendentalist movement, which espoused a philosophy that emphasized the inherent goodness of both people and nature, the value of individual intuition and imagination over societal conformity, and the belief that individuals could transcend the physical world to reach a higher spiritual level. This movement had a profound impact on American thought and culture.

2. American Individualism: Through his writings, Emerson promoted the idea of individualism, encouraging people to trust their inner voice and be self-reliant. His essay "Self-Reliance" is a seminal work in this regard, influencing generations of Americans to value their own thoughts and convictions over external influences and societal expectations.

3. Influence on American Literature: Emerson's ideas and writings influenced many other writers and thinkers of his time and later, including Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman, and Emily Dickinson. His emphasis on individual experience and personal reflection helped shape the development of American literary and philosophical traditions.

4. The American Scholar: Emerson's 1837 address, "The American Scholar," delivered to the Phi Beta Kappa Society at Harvard, is considered by many to be America's intellectual Declaration of Independence. In this speech, he called for intellectual independence from Europe and encouraged American scholars to develop their own unique culture and ideas.

5. Abolitionism: Emerson was an outspoken critic of slavery and became more active in the abolitionist movement after the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850. His lectures and writings in support of abolitionism helped to galvanize anti-slavery sentiment in the North.

6. Influence on Social Reforms: Emerson's transcendentalist philosophy extended into social reform movements, including women's rights, education, and communal living. His ideas inspired others to challenge traditional norms and advocate for progressive changes in society.

In summary, Ralph Waldo Emerson's contributions to American thought, literature, and social reform have left a lasting legacy. His promotion of individualism, self-reliance, and spiritual transcendence has had a profound influence on American culture and continues to be studied and admired to this day.

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Elizabeth Blackwell was a pioneering figure in the field of medicine and is historically significant for being the first woman to receive a medical degree in the United States. Born on February 3, 1821, in Bristol, England, Blackwell moved with her family to the United States in her youth. She was motivated to pursue medicine after a close friend who was dying suggested she would have preferred to have a female physician.

Despite facing significant discrimination and resistance, Blackwell applied to numerous medical schools and was eventually accepted by Geneva Medical College in New York, largely due to the male students thinking her application was a joke and voting to admit her as a prank. She graduated first in her class in 1849, thus breaking the gender barrier in the traditionally male-dominated medical profession.

Blackwell's achievements did not stop with her graduation. She continued to blaze trails for women in medicine by:

1. Establishing a small clinic to treat poor women and children in New York City, which later grew into the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children in 1857, with the help of her sister Emily Blackwell, who also became a physician, and colleague Dr. Marie Zakrzewska.

2. During the Civil War, she trained nurses for Union hospitals, contributing to the improvement of nursing standards and practices.

3. In 1868, she opened the Women's Medical College at the New York Infirmary to provide medical education for women, a radical idea at the time.

4. Advocating for the education of women in medicine and public health, she lectured extensively and wrote numerous articles and books on the subject.

5. Returning to England later in life, she became a professor of gynecology at the London School of Medicine for Women, which she had helped to found, further advancing the cause of women in the medical profession.

Elizabeth Blackwell's legacy is not only that she was the first woman to receive a medical degree in the U.S., but also that she worked tirelessly to ensure that other women had the opportunity to pursue careers in medicine. Her efforts helped to open doors for future generations of women in the healthcare field, and she remains an inspiring figure in the history of medicine and women's rights.