Exam 21: East Asia in Global Perspective

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The term "yangban" refers to the traditional ruling class or aristocracy of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty, which lasted from 1392 to 1897. The yangban were part of the social hierarchy and were primarily composed of high-ranking officials, scholars, and military officers. They were characterized by their adherence to Confucian principles and their scholarly pursuits, particularly in literature, history, and philosophy.

The yangban class was a hereditary elite, with status and privileges passed down through family lines. They were exempt from certain taxes and manual labor, and they had the exclusive right to take the civil service examinations that were the gateway to government positions. Success in these examinations, which tested knowledge of Confucian texts and principles, was essential for entry into the yangban class.

As a social class, the yangban were influential in shaping Korean culture, politics, and education. They were expected to set moral examples for the rest of society by living virtuous lives and upholding Confucian ideals. However, over time, the yangban class became more rigid and stratified, leading to social and economic imbalances that contributed to the eventual decline of the Joseon Dynasty.

Today, the concept of the yangban is a historical one, but the legacy of their influence on Korean culture, education, and social structures can still be seen in modern South Korea.

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Without access to the specific textbook you're referencing, I can't directly locate the city on Map 21.1. However, based on historical context, the city where the Chinese allowed European trade to take place was likely Guangzhou (also known as Canton). During the late 18th century and early 19th century, Guangzhou was the only Chinese port open to foreign traders, and it was here that the Canton System of trade was established.

The Canton System was a trade network operated by the Qing dynasty from the mid-1700s until the First Opium War in 1839. Under this system, Western merchants were restricted to a small trading area in Guangzhou and could only do business through Chinese merchants known as "hong" merchants. These merchants were licensed by the Chinese government and acted as intermediaries between the Chinese authorities and the foreign traders.

European frustration with Chinese trade policies grew over time for several reasons:

1. Trade Restrictions: The Canton System severely limited where Europeans could trade and with whom they could conduct business. This restriction was seen as an impediment to the free trade ambitions of European powers, particularly the British.

2. Trade Imbalance: European nations, especially Great Britain, were buying more from China (mainly tea, silk, and porcelain) than they were able to sell to the Chinese, leading to a significant trade deficit. The Chinese insisted on being paid in silver, which further drained European coffers.

3. Diplomatic Treatment: European traders and officials were often dissatisfied with the lack of formal diplomatic recognition and the perceived indignities they suffered under the Chinese tributary system. They were not allowed to have direct contact with Chinese officials and were often subject to strict regulations and ceremonies they found humiliating.

4. Legal Jurisdiction: Europeans in China were subject to Chinese law, which was very different from European legal systems. This led to frustration and fear among European traders, who felt unprotected and at the mercy of a foreign legal system.

5. Limited Market Access: Europeans were eager to sell their own goods in China, but the Chinese government was largely uninterested in foreign products, which they deemed inferior to Chinese goods. This limited the potential for Europeans to sell their goods in China and exacerbated the trade imbalance.

The culmination of these frustrations led to the Opium Wars, which were a series of conflicts between China and Western countries, primarily Britain, in the mid-19th century. The wars resulted in China's defeat and the opening of several additional "treaty ports" where Western powers could trade and enjoy extraterritorial rights, marking the beginning of the end for the Canton System and the start of a new era of foreign influence in China.