Exam 4: HESI-A2-Reading

Guide dogs Guide dogs are service animals that are specially trained to help visually impaired people. Most guide dogs are Labrador Retrievers, Golden Retrievers, or German Shepherds, breeds known for their intelligence, gentleness, and friendliness. Puppies that might become guide dogs are monitored from a very young age by trainers. Puppies that demonstrate a good temperament and willingness to learn begin their training at about 16 months of age. Puppies that have been selected for training live with their trainer's family for about a year. Trainers teach the puppies to walk in straight lines, avoid obstacles, and stop at curbs. The dog learns how to focus on the owner instead of distractions, such as food, toys, or other animals. Guide dogs learn how to obey their owners, but also when to refuse their owner's commands when it might lead to danger, such as crossing a busy street. When the dog is full-grown, the trainer brings it in for a final assessment. If the dog passes the test, it is placed with a visually impaired person in need of a service animal. If the dog fails the assessment, however, it often remains as a pet with the trainer's family. Although trainers might be sad to part with the dog that they have bonded with, they know that their former charge has become an invaluable resource for someone in need. What is the best summary for this passage?

Soda Ban Cigarettes. Alcohol. Drugs. Most people agree that these things should be kept away from children and only consumed by adults in limited quantities, if at all. Is the same thing true for soda? A 20-ounce-bottle of soda has over sixteen teaspoons of sugar in it. This is twice the amount of sugar that the American Heart Association recommends a person should eat in an entire day. Furthermore, this 20-ounce bottle of soda delivers over 200 calories and no nutritive value; soda contains no vitamins, minerals, fiber, protein, or other nutrients. Drinking sodas and other sugary beverages can cause serious health problems. Consuming too many of these sugar-filled beverages may increase your risk for developing Type 2 diabetes, obesity, heart disease, tooth decay, and certain kinds of cancer. Studies have also shown that people who drink soda tend to develop a condition known as metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is a condition characterized by excess abdominal fat, high blood pressure, elevated blood sugar, high levels of triglycerides, and low levels of HDL cholesterol (commonly referred to as "good cholesterol"). Some places have already taken steps to reduce the amount of soda people consume. In California, for example, cafeterias and vending machines in grade schools can not sell soda. The city of Philadelphia also recently added a tax on sugary beverages, making sodas more expensive to purchase. Soda may taste good, but it is terrible for your health. There should be more bans and taxes to keep people from drinking these harmful beverages. Which is the best summary for the passage?

Running vs. Walking Running is one of the best ways to get exercise. You do not need to join a gym or buy expensive equipment to go for a run. But you might be surprised to learn that walking can be just as good for you as running. In fact, going for a walk might be even better for you than going for a run. Running can help lower your blood pressure and reduce your risk for heart disease. However, recent research by the American Heart Association shows that walking is just as good for your heart as running. A brisk walk can lower the risk for heart disease, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol just as much as running does. The only catch? You have to walk twice as long as you would run. In order to get the benefits of a 15-minute run, you need to walk for 30 minutes. Walking is just as good as running when it comes to cardiac health, but there are other ways in which walking can actually be better for you than running. Running can be tough on your body, especially your joints. In fact, a recent study published by the American College of Sports Medicine shows that as many as 40 to 50 percent of runners suffer a running-related injury every year. Walking does have some advantages over running. However, one thing is for sure: either one is better for you than sitting on a couch! Question: Which of the following statements is true according to the passage?

Wrinkles Skin wrinkles are caused by a variety of factors. Some of these factors are intrinsic, meaning that you cannot control them because they occur naturally. Others are extrinsic, meaning that they are caused by circumstances outside of the body. One intrinsic factor is aging. As you age, your skin loses collagen, which is the protein responsible for keeping your skin elastic. With less collagen, your skin becomes thinner and more fragile. Aging also reduces the functioning of sweat and oil glands, which work to keep the skin looking smooth. You also lose fat in the deeper layers of your skin as you age. This fat loss causes your skin to sag and develop deeper wrinkles. The two most common extrinsic factors are exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV rays) and smoking. UV rays in sunlight break down your skin's connective tissue and collagen fibers. To prevent the appearance of wrinkles (as well as protect yourself from skin cancer), you should always use UV-blocking sunscreen. The nicotine in cigarettes is the most likely link between smoking and wrinkles. Nicotine narrows the blood vessels, reducing the blood supply to your skin tissue. This deprives your skin of oxygen and important nutrients, causing damage that contributes to wrinkles. Question: Based on information provided in the text, which would NOT be an example of an extrinsic factor?

Mercury in Fish Mercury is a highly toxic metal found in neon signs, fluorescent lights, older thermometers, and certain kinds of telescopes. It can also be found in something that many people eat on a regular basis: fish. The mercury we might find in a can of tuna is most likely an indirect result of the coal industry. Mercury, which is naturally found in coal, is released into the air when coal is burned. It finds its way into waterways via mercury-laced rain. Mercury accumulates in certain kinds of fish through a process called biomagnification. Biomagnification occurs when a substance enters the food chain in small amounts at the very bottom and then increases in concentration in animals higher up on the food chain. Once a fish eats another creature containing mercury, the mercury does not leave that fish's body but instead is stored in fat. Therefore, the mercury continually accumulates as more mercury-contaminated fish are eaten. Despite the toxicity of mercury and the widespread nature of fish contamination, there is no need for the public to be overly apprehensive. Many popular fish, such as salmon, catfish, or tilapia, are generally safe to eat. Other fish, especially tuna and grouper, should only be eaten in moderation. Young children and pregnant women should be especially cautious about how many servings of mercury-contaminated fish they have per week. It is recommended that people in these groups not eat more than 2 servings of mercury-contaminated fish per week. Fish with the highest levels of mercury include shark, swordfish, and king mackerel. All people should avoid eating large amounts of these kinds of fish, and no one should eat these fish more frequently than once a month. Question: Which detail is NOT included in the passage regarding biomagnification?

Glowing in the Dark Have you ever wondered how glow-in-the-dark things actually glow in the dark? Most glow-in-the-dark items glow because of something called phosphorescence or photoluminescence. Phosphorescent items must be "charged" under a bright light before they actually glow in the dark. This charging process works because of a substance called phosphor. When light from the sun or a lamp hits phosphor, the phosphor molecules absorb the light and become energized. As the phosphor molecules release the stored energy, they emit a dim light that is visible in the dark. The color of the light that they produce depends on the color of the dye added to the glow-in-the-dark item. Usually, green dye is added to the phosphors to make the light easier to see. Although any color can be used, the human eye sees green light most clearly in the dark. There are also a few glow-in-the-dark items that do not need to be charged. Emergency exit signs, gun sights, and certain kinds of expensive wristwatches glow because of radioluminescence. In these items, the phosphor is mixed with a radioactive element called tritium. The radiation from the tritium provides energy to the phosphor. It is almost as if there are thousands of tiny lamps constantly shining on the phosphor. Because their phosphor is always energized, these radioluminescent items are always glowing. One other kind of glow-in-the-dark item that does not require charging is the glow stick. Glow sticks do not need to be held under light and do not contain any radioactive elements. Instead, glow sticks glow using chemiluminescence. Glow sticks contain a fluorescent dye and a thin glass tube that contains a chemical. To activate a glow stick, you bend the plastic container, causing the glass to break. The chemical inside the glass then mixes with the dye. The combination of the chemical and the dye produces visible light. Question: What is the author's purpose in writing this passage?

Placebos A placebo is any kind of drug, procedure, or treatment that does not have legitimate medicinal properties. Placebos do not contain any sort of active ingredient meant to treat an illness or injury. Placebo pills, for example, might be made out of sugar or corn starch. However, even though placebos contain no medicine whatsoever, people who take them often experience reactions that cannot possibly be triggered by the substances in the pills themselves. This is known as the placebo effect. In one study of the placebo effect, volunteers were given a starch pill and told that it was a stimulant similar to caffeine. These volunteers reported feeling more alert and slightly jittery. They also showed an increased heart rate and a spike in blood pressure. Researchers then gave the exact same placebo pill to a different group of people, this time telling them that it was a depressant. The second group of participants reported feeling drowsy and sluggish, and showed a reduced heart rate and lowered blood pressure. Researchers use placebos to evaluate the effectiveness and possible side effects of new drugs. For example, during a study for a drug to treat depression, half of the participants might be given the actual drug while the other half are given a placebo. None of the participants know whether or not they are taking the real drug or the placebo. Researchers can then compare the results between the two groups to determine whether or not the drug produces the desired results and examine the side effects. Question: Which word would best replace 'triggered' in paragraph 1?

Synaesthesia Does the number five smell like lemons? Is the sound of a flute purple? Does the letter "R" taste like cinnamon? These questions might seem strange, but to people with synaesthesia, they make perfect sense. Synaesthesia is a neurological phenomenon where the senses get crossed. People with synaesthesia (also called "synaesthetes") experience this phenomenon in different ways. The most common form of synaesthesia is called color-graphemic synaesthesia. People who experience this form of synaesthesia associate letters and numbers with certain colors. For example, the letter "A" might always appear to be red and the number eight might always look blue. Another common form of synaesthesia is chromesthesia: the association of sounds with colors. Some people who experience this phenomenon see bursts of color when they hear everyday sounds, such as dogs barking or water dripping. Others associate specific colors with different musical notes. Although scientists do not yet understand what causes some people to experience synaesthesia, some researchers argue for something called the cross-activation theory. This theory suggests that the regions of the brain responsible for interpreting information from the different senses have become "crossed," that is, the neurons from one sense inadvertently activate the neurons from another sense. There is also evidence to suggest that synaesthesia is a genetic trait. While there is no treatment for synaesthesia, there is also not much demand for a treatment; most synaesthetes report that they find their condition rather pleasant. Question: What is the best summary for the passage?

The Liver The liver is one of the largest and most vital organs in the body. It is located on the right side of the body and is protected by the rib cage. The liver performs many important jobs, including breaking down nutrients, removing toxins, and destroying damaged blood cells. The liver's main function is to filter blood. Blood travels to the liver from the digestive tract. The liver processes this blood, removing toxins and metabolizing nutrients. The liver also secretes bile during this process. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and released into the large intestine. Bile aids in the digestion of fats. The liver also makes proteins necessary for blood clotting, removes worn-out blood cells, helps to regulate blood sugar levels, and stores vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12. There are several diseases that can affect the liver. Because the liver performs so many important functions in the body, liver problems can be life-threatening. Hepatitis is a disease characterized by inflammation of the liver. Left untreated, certain types of hepatitis can be fatal. Cirrhosis is another dangerous liver condition. Cirrhosis develops when healthy liver tissue is replaced by scar tissue. This is most often caused by long-term alcohol abuse. Cirrhosis can cause swelling, internal bleeding, and eventually, liver failure. The only cure for cirrhosis is a full liver transplant. According to the text, which of these is true regarding cirrhosis?

The Science of Taste Have you ever looked at your tongue in a mirror? If so, you have probably noticed that it is bumpy. The bumps on your tongue are called papillae. Each one of the papillae contains hundreds of taste buds. You also have taste buds on the roof of your mouth and on your epiglottis, which is located at the top of your throat. The taste buds send messages to your brain that tell you about its basic flavor-that is, whether you are eating something salty, sweet, bitter, sour, or umami. Umami is hard to describe, but it is most often called a "meaty" or "savory" flavor. Foods with an umami flavor include meat broth, cheese, and soy sauce. Your mouth and tongue also have receptors that send information about things besides the basic flavors of food. Your mouth has temperature receptor cells that can tell whether a food is piping hot or ice cold. Other receptors give information about the texture of food or how spicy it is. But just being able to tell whether what you are eating is sour, cold, crunchy, or spicy is not truly tasting the food. For example, orange soda and root beer are both sweet, cold, and bubbly, but they do not taste the same. In order to get the full flavor of your food, you also need to use your sense of smell. The upper part of your nose contains special cells called olfactory receptors. They send messages about what things smell like to your brain. As you chew your food, chemicals quickly travel to the olfactory receptors in your nose. When your brain gets information from both the olfactory receptors and the taste buds, you experience the full flavor of what you are eating. Question: According to the passage, what are taste buds responsible for?

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Carbon monoxide (CO) is a poisonous gas that has is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. These qualities make it possible for you to breathe in toxic amounts of carbon monoxide without realizing that you are in danger. Carbon monoxide is produced when materials that contain carbon, such as wood, coal, gasoline, oil, or natural gas, are burned. If the space where the materials are burned is not ventilated properly, then the carbon monoxide that is released can build to dangerous levels. Inhaling carbon monoxide causes the gas to build up in your bloodstream. CO molecules displace oxygen in your blood, depriving your heart, brain, and other organs of oxygen. Early signs of carbon monoxide poisoning include flu-like symptoms, such as dizziness, drowsiness, headache, blurred vision, nausea, and vomiting. Prolonged exposure to large amounts of CO can lead to unconsciousness, irreversible heart, lung, or brain damage, and death. People who are most at risk of carbon monoxide poisoning include pregnant women, young children, the elderly, and people with serious heart or lung conditions. To prevent carbon monoxide poisoning, people should make sure that places where carbon-containing materials are burned are properly ventilated. Carbon monoxide detectors should also be present in homes, garages, and workspaces. Which is an example of opinion, rather than factual evidence?

Glowing in the Dark Have you ever wondered how glow-in-the-dark things actually glow in the dark? Most glow-in-the-dark items glow because of something called phosphorescence or photoluminescence. Phosphorescent items must be "charged" under a bright light before they actually glow in the dark. This charging process works because of a substance called phosphor. When light from the sun or a lamp hits phosphor, the phosphor molecules absorb the light and become energized. As the phosphor molecules release the stored energy, they emit a dim light that is visible in the dark. The color of the light that they produce depends on the color of the dye added to the glow-in-the-dark item. Usually, green dye is added to the phosphors to make the light easier to see. Although any color can be used, the human eye sees green light most clearly in the dark. There are also a few glow-in-the-dark items that do not need to be charged. Emergency exit signs, gun sights, and certain kinds of expensive wristwatches glow because of radioluminescence. In these items, the phosphor is mixed with a radioactive element called tritium. The radiation from the tritium provides energy to the phosphor. It is almost as if there are thousands of tiny lamps constantly shining on the phosphor. Because their phosphor is always energized, these radioluminescent items are always glowing. One other kind of glow-in-the-dark item that does not require charging is the glow stick. Glow sticks do not need to be held under light and do not contain any radioactive elements. Instead, glow sticks glow using chemiluminescence. Glow sticks contain a fluorescent dye and a thin glass tube that contains a chemical. To activate a glow stick, you bend the plastic container, causing the glass to break. The chemical inside the glass then mixes with the dye. The combination of the chemical and the dye produces visible light. Question: What is the best summary for the passage?

GMOs GMOs, or genetically modified organisms, are organisms whose genes have been altered in laboratories. Scientists modify the genetic codes of plants or animals by inserting copies of desirable genes into the organism's DNA. While modifying organisms in a laboratory is a relatively new scientific development, people have been experimenting with genetics on plants and animals for centuries. For example, cattle ranchers have selectively bred their animals to produce cows that give more milk. Although some people fear the "Frankenstein" nature of GMOs, there is no scientific evidence to suggest that GMO-based foods are harmful for human consumption. In fact, there are several reasons to believe that GMOs actually quite beneficial. Through genetic modification, scientists can breed species of plants or animals that yield hardier, more abundant, or even more nutritious food. Geneticists have been able to produce rice plants that can survive droughts and wheat plants that are naturally pest-resistant. Some genetically modified foods have been engineered to have higher levels of specific nutrients, such as protein or calcium. Proponents of GMOs argue that these kinds of advances might one day help to end world hunger. Furthermore, genetically modified crops and animals can be bred to require fewer natural resources and produce less waste. This means that GMOs might also be better for the environment. Question: Which of the following is true according to information found in the passage?

Balance Everyone knows that your ears are responsible for your sense of hearing. But did you also know that your ears are also partially responsible for your sense of balance? Your inner ear contains something called the vestibular system, which is a key component in your body's ability to establish and maintain balance. The vestibular system mainly consists of three semicircular canals. Each semicircular canal has a different orientation, allowing them to detect a variety of movements. The canals are filled with a fluid called endolymph. When you move your head, the fluid in the canals also moves; this movement sends signals to the brain about the position of your head. Your brain uses this information to help your body stay balanced. Damage to the vestibular system caused by disease or injury can severely affect a person's balance. Consuming too much alcohol can also temporarily affect the vestibular system. Because alcohol thins the blood, it also changes the viscosity of the endolymph. The thinned-out endolymph sends signals to your brain that your body is rotating even though it is not. This is why many people feel like the room is spinning when they are drunk. What is a possible reason for including the last sentence of the passage?

Women in Clinical Trials When new drugs or medical procedures are ready to be tested on human subjects, researchers find volunteers for clinical trials. However, far more men than women are used as subjects during these trials. It was widely assumed for many years that women and men would respond to medication in the same way. Therefore, it did not seem to matter whether men or women were participating in clinical trials. Because of this, researchers mostly drew from pools of male volunteers because they were perceived to be more low-risk (and accordingly, less expensive to include in a trial). Women who are pregnant, nursing, post-menopausal or even simply of childbearing age are considered too "risky" to participate in clinical trials. These parameters essentially eliminate all women. However, it is difficult to determine whether this decision to eliminate women was made out of beneficence or paternalism. The main problem with this gender discrepancy is that men and women are physiologically different. Their bodies process medications and respond to treatments differently. The over-representation of men in clinical trials has impeded the progress of understanding how new medications will affect women. Question: Which of the following statements would the author most likely agree with?

DNA analysis Modern forensics-science used in investigating crimes-relies heavily on DNA evidence. Nearly every cell in our bodies contains DNA, the molecule that carries our genetic information. Aside from identical twins, no two human beings have the exact same DNA. Because DNA is present in our hair, blood, skin, and saliva, we leave traces of our DNA just about everywhere we go. Forensic investigators collect and analyze DNA evidence left at crime scenes to identify criminals. On television, this process is quick and conclusive. In real life, however, it is much more complicated. If the material found at the crime scene is too small, too old, or has otherwise been damaged, analyzing the DNA can be difficult. Furthermore, if the sample came from teeth, hair, or bones, it must undergo a different type of analysis called mitochondrial DNA analysis, which uses DNA from a cell's mitochondria instead of the nucleus. Matching mitochondrial DNA is often more difficult than nuclear DNA. Furthermore, forensic experts never suggest that DNA evidence is concrete proof of a suspect's guilt. Forensic science is rooted in probability, not certainty. When the DNA of a suspect is found at a crime scene, it means that the suspect was likely to have been present at the crime scene, but it does not definitively indicate that he or she was guilty of a crime. Question: Which of the following is true of mitochondrial DNA testing?

Concussions Concussions are brain injuries that occur when a person receives a blow to the head, face, or neck. Although most people who suffer a concussion experience initial bouts of dizziness, nausea, and drowsiness, these symptoms often disappear after a few days. The long-term effects of concussions, however, are less understood and far more severe. Recent studies suggest that people who suffer multiple concussions are at significant risk for developing chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disorder that causes a variety of dangerous mental and emotional problems to arise weeks, months, or even years after the initial injury. These psychological problems can include depression, anxiety, memory loss, inability to concentrate, and aggression. In extreme cases, people suffering from CTE have even committed suicide or homicide. The majority of people who develop these issues are athletes who participate in popular high-impact sports, especially football. Improvements in diagnostic technology have provided substantial evidence to link severe-and often fatal-psychological disorders to the head injuries players receive while on the field. Recent autopsies performed on the brains of football players who have committed suicide have shown advanced cases of CTE in every single victim. In response to the growing understanding of this danger, the National Football League (NFL) has revised its safety regulations. There is hope that these new regulations, coupled with advances in helmet design, will reduce the number of concussions player endure, and thus curb the number of CTE cases. Efforts by the NFL and other professional sports leagues are certainly laudable. However, new regulations at the professional level cannot protect amateur players, especially young people. Fatal cases of CTE have been reported in victims as young as 21. With appropriate equipment and form, tackling need not be dangerous. Proper tackling form-using the arms and shoulders to aim for a player's midsection rather than leading with the top of the head-should be taught at an early age. Youth, high school, and college leagues should also adopt safety rules even more stringent than the NFL's. Question: What is the primary purpose of the passage?

Running vs. Walking Running is one of the best ways to get exercise. You do not need to join a gym or buy expensive equipment to go for a run. But you might be surprised to learn that walking can be just as good for you as running. In fact, going for a walk might be even better for you than going for a run. Running can help lower your blood pressure and reduce your risk for heart disease. However, recent research by the American Heart Association shows that walking is just as good for your heart as running. A brisk walk can lower the risk for heart disease, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol just as much as running does. The only catch? You have to walk twice as long as you would run. In order to get the benefits of a 15-minute run, you need to walk for 30 minutes. Walking is just as good as running when it comes to cardiac health, but there are other ways in which walking can actually be better for you than running. Running can be tough on your body, especially your joints. In fact, a recent study published by the American College of Sports Medicine shows that as many as 40 to 50 percent of runners suffer a running-related injury every year. Walking does have some advantages over running. However, one thing is for sure: either one is better for you than sitting on a couch! Question: What is the meaning of the word catch in paragraph two?

Long before the weather forecast appeared on the nightly local news, farmers had their own way of predicting the weather. This makes sense because, after all, their livelihood depended on it. While some people might discount their predictions as mere tall tales, there is indeed some truth in many of their sayings. For instance, there is an old saying: "Frogs croaking in the lagoon means rain will come real soon." Frogs are cold-blooded amphibians, so they require moist skin and relatively high temperatures to be active. Their croaking implies that the temperature and humidity are high-and these can often precede summer thunderstorms. Far from being a pest, this creature can actually give a farmer insight into approaching weather patterns. It's probably even be more accurate than a weather forecast on the nightly news! What is the main idea of the passage?

The Liver The liver is one of the largest and most vital organs in the body. It is located on the right side of the body and is protected by the rib cage. The liver performs many important jobs, including breaking down nutrients, removing toxins, and destroying damaged blood cells. The liver's main function is to filter blood. Blood travels to the liver from the digestive tract. The liver processes this blood, removing toxins and metabolizing nutrients. The liver also secretes bile during this process. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and released into the large intestine. Bile aids in the digestion of fats. The liver also makes proteins necessary for blood clotting, removes worn-out blood cells, helps to regulate blood sugar levels, and stores vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12. There are several diseases that can affect the liver. Because the liver performs so many important functions in the body, liver problems can be life-threatening. Hepatitis is a disease characterized by inflammation of the liver. Left untreated, certain types of hepatitis can be fatal. Cirrhosis is another dangerous liver condition. Cirrhosis develops when healthy liver tissue is replaced by scar tissue. This is most often caused by long-term alcohol abuse. Cirrhosis can cause swelling, internal bleeding, and eventually, liver failure. The only cure for cirrhosis is a full liver transplant. Which word could best replace "worn-out" in paragraph 2?