Exam 4: HESI-A2-Reading

Placebos A placebo is any kind of drug, procedure, or treatment that does not have legitimate medicinal properties. Placebos do not contain any sort of active ingredient meant to treat an illness or injury. Placebo pills, for example, might be made out of sugar or corn starch. However, even though placebos contain no medicine whatsoever, people who take them often experience reactions that cannot possibly be triggered by the substances in the pills themselves. This is known as the placebo effect. In one study of the placebo effect, volunteers were given a starch pill and told that it was a stimulant similar to caffeine. These volunteers reported feeling more alert and slightly jittery. They also showed an increased heart rate and a spike in blood pressure. Researchers then gave the exact same placebo pill to a different group of people, this time telling them that it was a depressant. The second group of participants reported feeling drowsy and sluggish, and showed a reduced heart rate and lowered blood pressure. Researchers use placebos to evaluate the effectiveness and possible side effects of new drugs. For example, during a study for a drug to treat depression, half of the participants might be given the actual drug while the other half are given a placebo. None of the participants know whether or not they are taking the real drug or the placebo. Researchers can then compare the results between the two groups to determine whether or not the drug produces the desired results and examine the side effects. Question: Based on the passage, what is NOT true about placebos?

Dissociative Identity Disorder Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly called multiple personality disorder, is a severe psychological condition in which two or more distinct identities are present in an individual. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of diagnosed cases of  DID in the past 30 years. There has also been an increase in the number of different personalities reported, as well as more unusual personalities. This may be due to an increased awareness of the disease among clinicians. However, it might also be because there have been so many sensational portrayals of DID in popular media. Some believe that people fake the disorder in order to absolve themselves of guilt or gain attention. However, there is a good deal of research that suggests that DID is a legitimate illness. One of the strongest pieces of evidence is fact that it is found all over the world. There have been cases of DID reported in cities and villages across Turkey, Nigeria, Ethiopia, China, and India, among other places. It is unlikely that people living in rural or remote places have been influenced by portrayals of DID in films or television shows. Others argue that DID is the creation of overzealous clinicians who (unwittingly) induce highly suggestible clients to believe they have multiple personalities. These clinicians encourage clients to "bring out" the other personalities during hypnosis and reward them with praise for doing so, which then makes the clients more likely to believe that the other personalities are real. If this is the case, it may not be a "genuine" illness in that the clinicians have created it, but is this any different than a "genuine" mental illness that is fostered by other people's influences on a client's life?  No matter what has caused the illness, it causes significant distress to the client, and therefore must be treated as a serious and "genuine" problem. Question: Why does the author pose a question to readers in the last paragraph?

Running vs. Walking Running is one of the best ways to get exercise. You do not need to join a gym or buy expensive equipment to go for a run. But you might be surprised to learn that walking can be just as good for you as running. In fact, going for a walk might be even better for you than going for a run. Running can help lower your blood pressure and reduce your risk for heart disease. However, recent research by the American Heart Association shows that walking is just as good for your heart as running. A brisk walk can lower the risk for heart disease, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol just as much as running does. The only catch? You have to walk twice as long as you would run. In order to get the benefits of a 15-minute run, you need to walk for 30 minutes. Walking is just as good as running when it comes to cardiac health, but there are other ways in which walking can actually be better for you than running. Running can be tough on your body, especially your joints. In fact, a recent study published by the American College of Sports Medicine shows that as many as 40 to 50 percent of runners suffer a running-related injury every year. Walking does have some advantages over running. However, one thing is for sure: either one is better for you than sitting on a couch! Question: Which of the following is a statement of the author's opinion, and not presented as a fact in the passage?

The Science of Yawning Have you yawned today? If you can't remember or perhaps haven't noticed, you're similar to most Americans. According to a 2007 study, yawning is considered a basic bodily function, such as scratching an itch or crossing one's legs, and people hardly make note of the act. Despite its normality in our daily routines, the question regarding why yawning occurs still has not been answered with certainty. Interestingly enough, little research has been paid to studying yawning, due to a debate surrounding its importance. Many scientists disagree on the importance surrounding research for yawning. Those against the research believe that it will not greatly impact the scientific and medicinal communities, while others believe that there is a case to be made for the possible physiological significance of a somewhat pointless act. There are a few possible causes as to why one yawns, and even fewer theories related to the evolutionary reason for yawning. The most established theory is that yawning helps a person increase his or hers state of alertness. This is one reason as to why yawning has been associated with sleepiness, or when a person is extremely fatigued. In fact, one famous study has suggested that yawning may have developed as a way of keeping animals alert to possible predators. This gives way to the "contagious" yawn theory, which involves an instinctual reaction to warn another member of the "herd" to stay alert in times of danger. These evolutionary theories are also connected to theories regarding empathy. Various studies have shown that spatial proximity in socially close primates is an indicator of yawn contagion. Other scientists believe that yawning is a sign of the body regulating its temperature and cooling itself down. Neuroscientists have attributed yawning to another possible theory regarding the neurotransmitters in the brain. They believe that chemicals responsible for yawning, including serotonin and dopamine, also cause feelings such as hunger and happiness. Thus, as more of these compounds are activated in the brain, the more frequently a person yawns. In one psychological study on the effects of antidepressant medication, researchers found that people undergoing withdrawal from opioids and those taking serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) yawned more often than the people in the control group. This can give way to the idea that chemicals in the brain-especially serotonin-can have an impact on the frequency of yawning. Yawning continues to be an interesting phenomenon with a plethora of possible causes. Theories ranging from chemical balances to empathy relation are all within the realms of possible reasons as to why people yawn, but scientists will most likely study these theories for decades to come. Until a conclusive, definitive answer is reached, it may be safe to assume that yawning acts as a diverse linguistic signal that can represent various functional outcomes. Which of these options best summarizes the passage?

The Pilomotor Reflex Have you ever experienced the pilomotor reflex? Chances are that you have. The pilomotor reflex is actually something most people experience every day: goose bumps. Goose bumps (also called goose flesh and goose pimples) are small bumps on the skin. They are created when tiny muscles beneath the hairs on your skin contract, pulling the hair into an upright position. They can occur anywhere that you have hair on your body, but they are most common on your arms and legs. Goose bumps are an involuntary reaction to many different sensations, such as cold, fear, or even happiness. Humans are not the only animals that get goose bumps. When cats or dogs are threatened by an enemy, the pilomotor reflex will cause their fur to stand on end. This makes the animal look larger, which might scare away the enemy. Porcupines also experience the pilomotor reflex; a frightened porcupine will raise its quills when it is in danger. This not only makes the porcupine look bigger, it frightens enemies away by drawing attention to the sharp quills. The pilomotor reflex can also help animals stay warm by trapping body heat closer to their skin. Because human beings have much less body hair than most other animals, goose bumps do not make us seem larger or more intimidating. They also do not help to keep us very warm, although they do help to prevent some heat from leaving the body. For the most part, the pilomotor reflex is much more important for animals than it is for people. In fact, many scientists think that the pilomotor reflex is actually completely useless for humans. Question: Which of the following is NOT a detail included in the passage?

Your Bones At birth, the human body contains over 270 bones. However, as the body grows, some of these bones fuse together. The average adult body contains 206 bones. Together, these bones form the skeleton. The skeleton has many vital functions, including protecting internal organs, providing support, enabling movement, generating blood cells, storing calcium, and helping to regulate the endocrine system. Although we only have one skeleton, it is divided into two major regions: the axial and the appendicular skeletons. The former refers to everything on the body's middle axis, such as the skull, sternum, and vertebrae, while the latter refers to the bones that make up the arms, legs, pelvis, and shoulder girdle. These bones include the femur, the tibia, the ulna, and the radius. Bones are further classified according to their shape and function. The five classifications of bones are: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid bones. Long bones include the fibula and tibia. The carpal bones in the wrist are examples of short bones. Flat bones are thin and curved, and include the ribs, the sternum, and some skull bones. Irregular bones, such as the vertebrae and some facial bones, have complex shapes. Finally, sesamoid bones are small, round bones that form in tendons. There are sesamoid bones in the hands, wrists, and feet, but the most familiar sesamoid bone is the patella, or kneecap. Question: Based on information in the text, what is the best way to describe the bones found in the wrist and feet?

Father of Surgery Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi, also known as Albucasis, is considered by many people to be the "Father of Modern Surgery." Al-Zahrawi was born in Spain in 936 CE, a time when Spain was part of the Islamic empire. One of Al-Zahrawi's greatest contributions was the Kitab al-Tasrif, a 30-volume encyclopedia of medical information. The Kitab al-Tasrif took Al-Zahrawi over 50 years to complete. It contains information about a wide variety of illnesses, injuries, medical conditions, treatments, and surgical procedures. His book includes discussions of dentistry, obstetrics, ophthalmology, urology, and cranial surgery, among many others. He even provides illustrations for over 200 different surgical instruments. In the Kitab, Al-Zahrawi presents the first description of an ectopic pregnancy and provides the first evidence that hemophilia is a genetic condition. Surgeons continued to use the information in the Kitab al-Tasrif well into the 1700's. In fact, some of Al-Zahrawi's practices are still being used to this very day. For example, Al-Zahrawi developed a technique to treat gynecomastia (enlarged breast tissue) in men that is still in practice today. Finally, the Kitab also includes something vital for all modern practitioners to keep in mind: a reminder that patients are human beings who must be treated regardless of their wealth or social status. Question: According to the text, which field of medicine is NOT specifically listed as having benefited from Al-Zahrawi's contributions?

Trans fats Trans fats are unsaturated fats found in many processed foods. Though their prevalence makes them a part of many people's diet, excessive consumption of trans fats can lead to a variety of serious health problems. Certain trans fats are found naturally in some animal products, such as beef and milk. However, the main source of trans fats for many people is processed foods. Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils are trans fats that are often found in shortening, packaged baked goods, and fried foods. Restaurants and food manufacturers often choose to use partially hydrogenated oils because they are less expensive, have longer shelf lives, and require less refrigeration than non-hydrogenated oils. Although trans fats may be less expensive for food manufacturers to use, and thus cheaper for consumers to purchase, excessive intake of these substances can cause significant health risks. Like saturated fat, trans fat raises the level of LDL ("bad") cholesterol in the body. Unlike saturated fat, however, trans fat also lowers the amount of HDL ("good") cholesterol in the body. Therefore, trans fat has a far more negative overall effect on cholesterol levels in the human body than saturated fat. Studies have also linked the consumption of trans fats to increased risk of heart disease, diabetes, obesity, cancer, liver dysfunction, depression, and memory disorders. Which detail regarding trans fats is included in the passage?

Does Low Body Temperature Cause Illness? As children, we are often told to dress warmly in the winter so we do not get sick. This is a common piece of advice, but is there any truth behind it? In fact, there is no scientific evidence to suggest that being cold can get you sick. Most illnesses are caused by viruses and bacteria. Illnesses like strep throat, influenza, and the common cold are only spread through contact with other infected people. How cold you are when you come into contact with the virus or bacteria has nothing to do with whether or not you will get sick. The effect of body temperature on contracting illness was tested on human beings in the 1950s. Researchers divided volunteers into two groups: half of them were kept in a warm room and the other half were kept in a cold room. Both groups were then exposed to rhinovirus-the virus responsible for the common cold. The researchers discovered that members of both groups developed colds at the same rate. Since that first experiment, there have been similar experiments performed with a variety of different illnesses. All have yielded the same result: being cold does not make a person more likely to get sick. Of course, it does seem that people do get sick more often when the weather is cold. However, this is because there is some evidence that people do get sick more often in cold weather, but it has nothing to do with forgetting to bundle up when it is chilly. When it is cold outside, people tend to stay inside. With so many people gathered closely together indoors, germs are spread more easily. Germs are spread from person to person, regardless of how cold or warm their bodies are. Which detail in the text supports the idea that people get sick more often when it is cold outside?

Dissociative Identity Disorder Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly called multiple personality disorder, is a severe psychological condition in which two or more distinct identities are present in an individual. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of diagnosed cases of  DID in the past 30 years. There has also been an increase in the number of different personalities reported, as well as more unusual personalities. This may be due to an increased awareness of the disease among clinicians. However, it might also be because there have been so many sensational portrayals of DID in popular media. Some believe that people fake the disorder in order to absolve themselves of guilt or gain attention. However, there is a good deal of research that suggests that DID is a legitimate illness. One of the strongest pieces of evidence is the fact that it is found all over the world. There have been cases of DID reported in cities and villages across Turkey, Nigeria, Ethiopia, China, and India, among other places. It is unlikely that people living in rural or remote places have been influenced by portrayals of DID in films or television shows. Others argue that DID is the creation of overzealous clinicians who (unwittingly) induce highly suggestible clients to believe they have multiple personalities. These clinicians encourage clients to "bring out" the other personalities during hypnosis and reward them with praise for doing so, which then makes the clients more likely to believe that the other personalities are real. If this is the case, it may not be a "genuine" illness in that the clinicians have created it, but is this any different than a "genuine" mental illness that is fostered by other people's influences on a client's life?  No matter what has caused the illness, it causes significant distress to the client, and therefore must be treated as a serious and "genuine" problem. Question: Which of the following is true according to the passage?

Running vs. Walking Running is one of the best ways to get exercise. You do not need to join a gym or buy expensive equipment to go for a run. But you might be surprised to learn that walking can be just as good for you as running. In fact, going for a walk might be even better for you than going for a run. Running can help lower your blood pressure and reduce your risk for heart disease. However, recent research by the American Heart Association shows that walking is just as good for your heart as running. A brisk walk can lower the risk for heart disease, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol just as much as running does. The only catch? You have to walk twice as long as you would run. In order to get the benefits of a 15-minute run, you need to walk for 30 minutes. Walking is just as good as running when it comes to cardiac health, but there are other ways in which walking can actually be better for you than running. Running can be tough on your body, especially your joints. In fact, a recent study published by the American College of Sports Medicine shows that as many as 40 to 50 percent of runners suffer a running-related injury every year. Walking does have some advantages over running. However, one thing is for sure: either one is better for you than sitting on a couch! Question: Which of the following is NOT an advantage of running and walking for exercise?

Wrinkles Skin wrinkles are caused by a variety of factors. Some of these factors are intrinsic, meaning that you cannot control them because they occur naturally. Others are extrinsic, meaning that they are caused by circumstances outside of the body. One intrinsic factor is aging. As you age, your skin loses collagen, which is the protein responsible for keeping your skin elastic. With less collagen, your skin becomes thinner and more fragile. Aging also reduces the functioning of sweat and oil glands, which work to keep the skin looking smooth. You also lose fat in the deeper layers of your skin as you age. This fat loss causes your skin to sag and develop deeper wrinkles. The two most common extrinsic factors are exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV rays) and smoking. UV rays in sunlight break down your skin's connective tissue and collagen fibers. To prevent the appearance of wrinkles (as well as protect yourself from skin cancer), you should always use UV-blocking sunscreen. The nicotine in cigarettes is the most likely link between smoking and wrinkles. Nicotine narrows the blood vessels, reducing the blood supply to your skin tissue. This deprives your skin of oxygen and important nutrients, causing damage that contributes to wrinkles. Question: Why does the author include information regarding UV-blocking sunscreen?

Antibiotic Resistance Antibiotic resistance occurs when micro-organisms develop means of survival despite exposure to antibiotics. The development of antibiotic resistance can be traced to two main areas of antibiotic misuse: over-prescription by doctors and unnecessary introduction into animal feed by farmers. The overuse of antibiotics by both doctors and farmers has increased antibiotic resistance by inadvertently fostering natural selection for resistance in colonies of bacteria. Bacteria that naturally carry antibiotic-resistant genes survive contact with the antibiotics. These resistant bacteria then reproduce, transferring their resistant genes to future generations of bacteria. Over time, this process yields a colony of bacteria that is fully resistant to antibiotics. Some bacteria even develop a variety of resistance genes; these bacteria are colloquially known as "superbugs" because of their ability to resist the majority of antibiotics. Staphylococcus aureus, the bacteria responsible for what is commonly known as a "Staph infection," is one of the most resistant pathogens. It is estimated that half of all Staph infections in the United States are resistant to penicillin, methicillin, tetracycline, and erythromycin-the four most common drugs used to treat such infections. The ever-increasing strength and population of these "superbugs" may pose a serious threat to human health in the near future. The problem of antibiotic resistance has no easy solution. More funding should be available to scientists working toward the research and development of new antibiotics that will fight resistant bacteria. There are also steps that laypeople should take to help prevent further development of resistant bacteria. Individuals with viral infections should not demand antibiotics from their doctors. Consumers should also put pressure on meat manufacturers to stop adding unnecessary antibiotics into animals' diets. Finally, citizens should petition the government to increase funding for scientific research done to combat the growing problem of antibiotic resistance. Question: What is the primary purpose of the passage?

Basketball Ankle Injury Treatments Basketball players are more likely than any other sports players to injure their ankles. The most common ankle injuries among basketball players are inversion (turning inward) and eversion (turning outward) of the ankle. The sharp twists, frequent running, constant jumping, and sudden stopping associated with basketball put tremendous pressure on a player's ankle joint. The two main ways that players and trainers try to treat and prevent these injuries are taping and bracing. Taping simply involves wrapping special tape snugly around the ankle joint. Although it is simple to apply, there are some drawbacks. Taping is not very expensive when used once, but when used throughout the season, taping is three times more costly than bracing. Taping also loosens with physical activity; after only ten minutes of exercise, the tape will become 50% looser. After one hour of exercise, taping offers no significant support whatsoever. Bracing has proven to be more effective than taping in a number of different studies. It is also much more cost effective throughout a season. Several types of ankle braces are available for use, ranging from cloth lace-on braces to more rigid plastic braces. Braces decrease the range of motion of the ankle more than taping does, and, therefore, help to prevent future ankle injuries. However, despite the benefits of ankle braces over ankle tape, many players find that braces restrict movement capabilities and also cause discomfort. Based on the text, what can be inferred from the bracing technique?

Placebos A placebo is any kind of drug, procedure, or treatment that does not have legitimate medicinal properties. Placebos do not contain any sort of active ingredient meant to treat an illness or injury. Placebo pills, for example, might be made out of sugar or corn starch. However, even though placebos contain no medicine whatsoever, people who take them often experience reactions that cannot possibly be triggered by the substances in the pills themselves. This is known as the placebo effect. In one study of the placebo effect, volunteers were given a starch pill and told that it was a stimulant similar to caffeine. These volunteers reported feeling more alert and slightly jittery. They also showed an increased heart rate and a spike in blood pressure. Researchers then gave the exact same placebo pill to a different group of people, this time telling them that it was a depressant. The second group of participants reported feeling drowsy and sluggish, and showed a reduced heart rate and lowered blood pressure. Researchers use placebos to evaluate the effectiveness and possible side effects of new drugs. For example, during a study for a drug to treat depression, half of the participants might be given the actual drug while the other half are given a placebo. None of the participants know whether or not they are taking the real drug or the placebo. Researchers can then compare the results between the two groups to determine whether or not the drug produces the desired results and examine the side effects. Question: Based on information in the passage, what can be inferred about the placebo effect?

PTSD in Female Veterans Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe anxiety disorder that affects millions of people around the world. Individuals can develop PTSD after experiencing any event that results in psychological trauma. Symptoms of PTSD involve flashbacks to the traumatic event, nightmares, obsessive behavior, anger, insomnia, difficulty concentrating, and hypervigilance. Individuals who suffer from PTSD can experience significant difficulties in social relationships, have lower self-esteem, and have trouble maintaining employment. People with PTSD experience a higher risk of committing suicide and developing a substance abuse disorder. Although PTSD can affect any individual, military veterans are especially susceptible. Furthermore, within this population, women are more than twice as likely as men to develop PTSD. Although studies investigating precisely why women are more likely than men to experience PTSD have not yet been completed, some experts have theorized that low unit cohesion is a major factor. Unit cohesion, defined as the mutual bonds of friendship and support among members of a military unit, is thought to be helpful in reducing the incidence of developing PTSD. Women are more likely than men to experience low unit cohesion for a variety of reasons. One of the most obvious factors is the relative lack of females in the military; currently, women make up only 20% of the armed forces. Pervasive male prejudice against women is another factor that can diminish unit cohesion for female soldiers. Perhaps the biggest impediment to achieving quality treatment for women suffering from wartime PTSD is a shortage of research. While both the VA and independent agencies have completed hundreds of studies researching the prevention of and treatment for PTSD amongst general military populations, there have been no studies completed that solely target women. More must be done to help women who have sacrificed so much for their country. Question: What is true about female veterans?

Basketball Ankle Injury Treatments Basketball players are more likely than any other sports players to injure their ankles. The most common ankle injuries among basketball players are inversion (turning inward) and eversion (turning outward) of the ankle. The sharp twists, frequent running, constant jumping, and sudden stopping associated with basketball put tremendous pressure on a player's ankle joint. The two main ways that players and trainers try to treat and prevent these injuries are taping and bracing. Taping simply involves wrapping special tape snugly around the ankle joint. Although it is simple to apply, there are some drawbacks. Taping is not very expensive when used once, but when used throughout the season, taping is three times more costly than bracing. Taping also loosens with physical activity; after only ten minutes of exercise, the tape will become 50% looser. After one hour of exercise, taping offers no significant support whatsoever. Bracing has proven to be more effective than taping in a number of different studies. It is also much more cost effective throughout a season. Several types of ankle braces are available for use, ranging from cloth lace-on braces to more rigid plastic braces. Braces decrease the range of motion of the ankle more than taping does, and, therefore, help to prevent future ankle injuries. However, despite the benefits of ankle braces over ankle tape, many players find that braces restrict movement capabilities and also cause discomfort. What is the best way to summarize the passage?

Hiccups At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things-eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What is the primary cause of the characteristic sound that a hiccup makes?

Women in Clinical Trials When new drugs or medical procedures are ready to be tested on human subjects, researchers find volunteers for clinical trials. However, far more men than women are used as subjects during these trials. It was widely assumed for many years that women and men would respond to medication in the same way. Therefore, it did not seem to matter whether men or women were participating in clinical trials. Because of this, researchers mostly drew from pools of male volunteers because they were perceived to be more low-risk (and accordingly, less expensive to include in a trial). Women who are pregnant, nursing, post-menopausal or even simply of childbearing age are considered too "risky" to participate in clinical trials. These parameters essentially eliminate all women. However, it is difficult to determine whether this decision to eliminate women was made out of beneficence or paternalism. The main problem with this gender discrepancy is that men and women are physiologically different. Their bodies process medications and respond to treatments differently. The over-representation of men in clinical trials has impeded the progress of understanding how new medications will affect women. Question: What is the author's purpose for writing this passage?

Soda Ban Cigarettes. Alcohol. Drugs. Most people agree that these things should be kept away from children and only consumed by adults in limited quantities, if at all. Is the same thing true for soda? A 20-ounce-bottle of soda has over sixteen teaspoons of sugar in it. This is twice the amount of sugar that the American Heart Association recommends a person should eat in an entire day. Furthermore, this 20-ounce bottle of soda delivers over 200 calories and no nutritive value; soda contains no vitamins, minerals, fiber, protein, or other nutrients. Drinking sodas and other sugary beverages can cause serious health problems. Consuming too many of these sugar-filled beverages may increase your risk for developing Type 2 diabetes, obesity, heart disease, tooth decay, and certain kinds of cancer. Studies have also shown that people who drink soda tend to develop a condition known as metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is a condition characterized by excess abdominal fat, high blood pressure, elevated blood sugar, high levels of triglycerides, and low levels of HDL cholesterol (commonly referred to as "good cholesterol"). Some places have already taken steps to reduce the amount of soda people consume. In California, for example, cafeterias and vending machines in grade schools can not sell soda. The city of Philadelphia also recently added a tax on sugary beverages, making sodas more expensive to purchase. Soda may taste good, but it is terrible for your health. There should be more bans and taxes to keep people from drinking these harmful beverages. Based on the text, which of the following details is NOT included regarding metabolic syndrome?