Exam 4: HESI-A2-Reading

Dreams The average adult spends almost two full hours every night dreaming. Dreams mainly occur during a period known as REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. While you are in REM sleep, your brain is very active-almost as active as if you were awake. The fact that we dream most often during REM sleep is one of very few facts about dreams that every scientist agrees on. Scientists do not know exactly which portion of the brain creates dreams or even why we have them in the first place. One theory about their purpose is that dreaming helps the brain to organize and store memories. As your body relaxes, your brain processes all of the information it received during the day. While you sleep, your brain organizes the information into memories; your mind perceives this process as dreaming. Because your mind works differently when you are asleep than it does when you are awake, your dreams may seem confusing, illogical, or just downright silly. Another theory is that dreams allow your mind to work out difficult problems that you encounter while you are awake. The unrealistic, free-flowing nature of dreams allows your mind to consider the problems in creative ways that you would likely never think of during your waking hours. Still other scientists believe that dreams are random events with no real function. According to this theory, there is no actual reason for dreaming-it is simply what happens when you go to sleep. As you can see, there is no scientific consensus about how or why we dream. There are many different theories, but no proven answers. Until then, you might as well just enjoy the fantastic nighttime adventures you get to go on without ever leaving your bed. Question: What is the best summary for the passage?

Dissociative Identity Disorder Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly called multiple personality disorder, is a severe psychological condition in which two or more distinct identities are present in an individual. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of diagnosed cases of  DID in the past 30 years. There has also been an increase in the number of different personalities reported, as well as more unusual personalities. This may be due to an increased awareness of the disease among clinicians. However, it might also be because there have been so many sensational portrayals of DID in popular media. Some believe that people fake the disorder in order to absolve themselves of guilt or gain attention. However, there is a good deal of research that suggests that DID is a legitimate illness. One of the strongest pieces of evidence is fact that it is found all over the world. There have been cases of DID reported in cities and villages across Turkey, Nigeria, Ethiopia, China, and India, among other places. It is unlikely that people living in rural or remote places have been influenced by portrayals of DID in films or television shows. Others argue that DID is the creation of overzealous clinicians who (unwittingly) induce highly suggestible clients to believe they have multiple personalities. These clinicians encourage clients to "bring out" the other personalities during hypnosis and reward them with praise for doing so, which then makes the clients more likely to believe that the other personalities are real. If this is the case, it may not be a "genuine" illness in that the clinicians have created it, but is this any different than a "genuine" mental illness that is fostered by other people's influences on a client's life?  No matter what has caused the illness, it causes significant distress to the client, and therefore must be treated as a serious and "genuine" problem. Question: Which of the following is NOT true according to the passage?

Basketball Ankle Injury Treatments Basketball players are more likely than any other sports players to injure their ankles. The most common ankle injuries among basketball players are inversion (turning inward) and eversion (turning outward) of the ankle. The sharp twists, frequent running, constant jumping, and sudden stopping associated with basketball put tremendous pressure on a player's ankle joint. The two main ways that players and trainers try to treat and prevent these injuries are taping and bracing. Taping simply involves wrapping special tape snugly around the ankle joint. Although it is simple to apply, there are some drawbacks. Taping is not very expensive when used once, but when used throughout the season, taping is three times more costly than bracing. Taping also loosens with physical activity; after only ten minutes of exercise, the tape will become 50% looser. After one hour of exercise, taping offers no significant support whatsoever. Bracing has proven to be more effective than taping in a number of different studies. It is also much more cost effective throughout a season. Several types of ankle braces are available for use, ranging from cloth lace-on braces to more rigid plastic braces. Braces decrease the range of motion of the ankle more than taping does, and, therefore, help to prevent future ankle injuries. However, despite the benefits of ankle braces over ankle tape, many players find that braces restrict movement capabilities and also cause discomfort. What is the author's purpose in writing this passage?

Lactose Intolerance Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest a sugar called lactose in milk and other dairy products. Adults in most of the world are lactose intolerant, although infants are not. This is because many adults lack an enzyme known as lactase. Lactase, which can be found in cells in the intestine, is the enzyme that breaks down lactose. Many individuals lose the ability to synthesize lactase after age six. However, not everyone does. Whether or not the body continues to produce lactase often depends on ethnicity. While only 5-15% of adults of European descent cannot digest lactose, 80-90% of adults of African and Asian descent are lactose intolerant. Research has shown that people of northern European ancestry contain a genetic mutation that allows the secretion of lactase in adulthood. The main symptom of lactose intolerance is gastrointestinal upset. Lactose intolerant people may experience diarrhea, bloating, abdominal pain, gas, and vomiting after consuming lactose-containing foods and beverages. Although there has been some research into gene therapy as a treatment for lactose intolerance, the current best treatment is either ingesting lactase supplements when consuming dairy products or simply avoiding foods containing lactose altogether. Question: What is the best summary for the passage?

The Science of Taste Have you ever looked at your tongue in a mirror? If so, you have probably noticed that it is bumpy. The bumps on your tongue are called papillae. Each one of the papillae contains hundreds of taste buds. You also have taste buds on the roof of your mouth and on your epiglottis, which is located at the top of your throat. The taste buds send messages to your brain that tell you about its basic flavor-that is, whether you are eating something salty, sweet, bitter, sour, or umami. Umami is hard to describe, but it is most often called a "meaty" or "savory" flavor. Foods with an umami flavor include meat broth, cheese, and soy sauce. Your mouth and tongue also have receptors that send information about things besides the basic flavors of food. Your mouth has temperature receptor cells that can tell whether a food is piping hot or ice cold. Other receptors give information about the texture of food or how spicy it is. But just being able to tell whether what you are eating is sour, cold, crunchy, or spicy is not truly tasting the food. For example, orange soda and root beer are both sweet, cold, and bubbly, but they do not taste the same. In order to get the full flavor of your food, you also need to use your sense of smell. The upper part of your nose contains special cells called olfactory receptors. They send messages about what things smell like to your brain. As you chew your food, chemicals quickly travel to the olfactory receptors in your nose. When your brain gets information from both the olfactory receptors and the taste buds, you experience the full flavor of what you are eating. Question: What is the primary purpose of this passage?

John D. Rockefeller is said to be the richest person ever to live, with an estimated wealth of $336 billion. But evidence suggests that an African named Mansa Musa probably surpassed that staggering amount. Musa lived in western Africa and became a surprisingly selfless emperor of the Mali people in 1312 A.D. By trading gold and salt, he amassed an enormous fortune, now estimated at $400 billion dollars in today's money. He is most famous for his pilgrimage to Mecca. Members of his caravan numbered some 60,000 people, and he made the journey with hundreds of animals and plenty of gold. He freely gave this gold to the poor that he met along the route. He had a number of mosques built, too. Legend has it that he built one every Friday during his reign. The most famous of these is the Djinguereber Mosque in Timbuktu, Mali. What is the main idea of the passage?

Father of Surgery Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi, also known as Albucasis, is considered by many people to be the "Father of Modern Surgery." Al-Zahrawi was born in Spain in 936 CE, a time when Spain was part of the Islamic empire. One of Al-Zahrawi's greatest contributions was the Kitab al-Tasrif, a 30-volume encyclopedia of medical information. The Kitab al-Tasrif took Al-Zahrawi over 50 years to complete. It contains information about a wide variety of illnesses, injuries, medical conditions, treatments, and surgical procedures. His book includes discussions of dentistry, obstetrics, ophthalmology, urology, and cranial surgery, among many others. He even provides illustrations for over 200 different surgical instruments. In the Kitab, Al-Zahrawi presents the first description of ectopic pregnancy and provides the first evidence that hemophilia is a genetic condition. Surgeons continued to use the information in the Kitab al-Tasrif well into the 1700s. In fact, some of Al-Zahrawi's practices are still being used to this very day. For example, Al-Zahrawi developed a technique to treat gynecomastia (enlarged breast tissue) in men that is still in practice today. Finally, the Kitab also includes something vital for all modern practitioners to keep in mind: a reminder that patients are human beings who must be treated regardless of their wealth or social status. Question: What can be inferred from the passage?

Lyme Disease Lyme disease is caused by ticks. More specifically, Lyme disease is caused by Borrellia bacteria, which are carried by ticks. When ticks infected with this bacteria bite humans, the bacteria can be transmitted into the bloodstream, causing an illness known as Lyme disease. The symptoms of Lyme disease include fever, headache, fatigue, and joint and muscle pain. One of the most noticeable signs is a rash that looks like a series of red rings radiating out from the bite. This usually appears a week after the tick bite. However, not everyone with Lyme disease gets this rash. The good news is that Lyme disease can be treated with antibiotics. Most people recover quickly and fully. However, if Lyme disease is not treated properly, patients can suffer from debilitating symptoms weeks, months, and even years after the bite. This condition is known as post-treatment Lyme disease (PTLD) or chronic Lyme disease (CLD). To protect yourself from Lyme disease, always cover your skin with clothing or insect repellent when hiking or camping. If you get bitten by a tick, remove the tick right away; most cases of Lyme disease require the tick to be attached for 36 to 48 hours. If red rings appear, see a doctor right away. Lyme disease can be harmful, but it is preventable and treatable with early intervention. Question: What is the meaning of the word chronic in the third paragraph?

Hiccups At some point in your life, you have probably had the hiccups. Hiccups are caused by spasms in the diaphragm, a muscle located at the bottom of your chest. As we inhale, the diaphragm contracts, pulling air into the lungs. As we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, pushing air back out through the mouth and nose. When we hiccup, the diaphragm jerks downward suddenly, pulling a quick burst of air into our lungs. As the air rushes into your body, it hits the voice box. This causes your vocal cords to snap shut, creating the sound we recognize as a hiccup. Hiccups can be triggered by many different things-eating too much, drinking too fast, sudden change of temperature, stress, fatigue, nervousness, and even excessive laughter can all cause the hiccups. While there are many home remedies for hiccups, there is no evidence to suggest that any of them are actually effective. In fact, most cases of the hiccups go away on their own. Although hiccups are usually harmless, they can be a sign of something more serious. Long-term hiccups might be a result of damage to the nerves that serve the diaphragm muscle. Persistent hiccups might also be caused by certain central nervous system disorders, traumatic brain injuries, drug abuse, or kidney disease. Question: What can be inferred about some cases of persistent hiccups?

Antibiotic Resistance Antibiotic resistance occurs when micro-organisms develop means of survival despite exposure to antibiotics. The development of antibiotic resistance can be traced to two main areas of antibiotic misuse: over-prescription by doctors and unnecessary introduction into animal feed by farmers. The overuse of antibiotics by both doctors and farmers has increased antibiotic resistance by inadvertently fostering natural selection for resistance in colonies of bacteria. Bacteria that naturally carry antibiotic-resistant genes survive contact with the antibiotics. These resistant bacteria then reproduce, transferring their resistant genes to future generations of bacteria. Over time, this process yields a colony of bacteria that is fully resistant to antibiotics. Some bacteria even develop a variety of resistance genes; these bacteria are colloquially known as "superbugs" because of their ability to resist the majority of antibiotics. Staphylococcus aureus, the bacteria responsible for what is commonly known as a "Staph infection," is one of the most resistant pathogens. It is estimated that half of all Staph infections in the United States are resistant to penicillin, methicillin, tetracycline, and erythromycin-the four most common drugs used to treat such infections. The ever-increasing strength and population of these "superbugs" may pose a serious threat to human health in the near future. The problem of antibiotic resistance has no easy solution. More funding should be available to scientists working toward the research and development of new antibiotics that will fight resistant bacteria. There are also steps that laypeople should take to help prevent further development of resistant bacteria. Individuals with viral infections should not demand antibiotics from their doctors. Consumers should also put pressure on meat manufacturers to stop adding unnecessary antibiotics into animals' diets. Finally, citizens should petition the government to increase funding for scientific research done to combat the growing problem of antibiotic resistance. Question: Based on the text, what can be inferred regarding the resistance of "superbugs"?

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Carbon monoxide (CO) is a poisonous gas that has is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. These qualities make it possible for you to breathe in toxic amounts of carbon monoxide without realizing that you are in danger. Carbon monoxide is produced when materials that contain carbon, such as wood, coal, gasoline, oil, or natural gas, are burned. If the space where the materials are burned is not ventilated properly, then the carbon monoxide that is released can build to dangerous levels. Inhaling carbon monoxide causes the gas to build up in your bloodstream. CO molecules displace oxygen in your blood, depriving your heart, brain, and other organs of oxygen. Early signs of carbon monoxide poisoning include flu-like symptoms, such as dizziness, drowsiness, headache, blurred vision, nausea, and vomiting. Prolonged exposure to large amounts of CO can lead to unconsciousness, irreversible heart, lung, or brain damage, and death. People who are most at risk of carbon monoxide poisoning include pregnant women, young children, the elderly, and people with serious heart or lung conditions. To prevent carbon monoxide poisoning, people should make sure that places where carbon-containing materials are burned are properly ventilated. Carbon monoxide detectors should also be present in homes, garages, and workspaces. What is the main idea of the passage?

The Liver The liver is one of the largest and most vital organs in the body. It is located on the right side of the body and is protected by the rib cage. The liver performs many important jobs, including breaking down nutrients, removing toxins, and destroying damaged blood cells. The liver's main function is to filter blood. Blood travels to the liver from the digestive tract. The liver processes this blood, removing toxins and metabolizing nutrients. The liver also secretes bile during this process. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and released into the large intestine. Bile aids in the digestion of fats. The liver also makes proteins necessary for blood clotting, removes worn-out blood cells, helps to regulate blood sugar levels, and stores vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12. There are several diseases that can affect the liver. Because the liver performs so many important functions in the body, liver problems can be life-threatening. Hepatitis is a disease characterized by inflammation of the liver. Left untreated, certain types of hepatitis can be fatal. Cirrhosis is another dangerous liver condition. Cirrhosis develops when healthy liver tissue is replaced by scar tissue. This is most often caused by long-term alcohol abuse. Cirrhosis can cause swelling, internal bleeding, and eventually, liver failure. The only cure for cirrhosis is a full liver transplant. According to the text, which is not mentioned as a duty of the liver?

In 1958, the magazine Popular Science predicted that the "age-old dream of flying like a bird may be closer than we think." How was this supposed to come to pass? The magazine predicted that people would be flying around with the greatest of ease using rocket-powered jetpacks. Indeed, such means of locomotion exist today. But there are many hurdles to pass before they become widely used. They are literally rockets, so they make a terrible racket-up to 130 decibels, which is actually louder than a 747 at takeoff. They're heavy, too. At eighty-five pounds, they're far too heavy for use by the majority of the population today. Finally, they're extremely costly. Entry-level jetpacks go for around a quarter of million dollars. And prices soar upwards from there. So while personal jetpacks are a great idea in theory, reality will prevent them from becoming a viable source of transportation anytime soon. Which of the following key ideas is true according to the passage?

Wrinkles Skin wrinkles are caused by a variety of factors. Some of these factors are intrinsic, meaning that you cannot control them because they occur naturally. Others are extrinsic, meaning that they are caused by circumstances outside of the body. One intrinsic factor is aging. As you age, your skin loses collagen, which is the protein responsible for keeping your skin elastic. With less collagen, your skin becomes thinner and more fragile. Aging also reduces the functioning of sweat and oil glands, which work to keep the skin looking smooth. You also lose fat in the deeper layers of your skin as you age. This fat loss causes your skin to sag and develop deeper wrinkles. The two most common extrinsic factors are exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UV rays) and smoking. UV rays in sunlight break down your skin's connective tissue and collagen fibers. To prevent the appearance of wrinkles (as well as protect yourself from skin cancer), you should always use UV-blocking sunscreen. The nicotine in cigarettes is the most likely link between smoking and wrinkles. Nicotine narrows the blood vessels, reducing the blood supply to your skin tissue. This deprives your skin of oxygen and important nutrients, causing damage that contributes to wrinkles. Question: What is the best meaning of the word 'deprives' at the end of paragraph 3?

Lyme Disease Lyme disease is caused by ticks. More specifically, Lyme disease is caused by Borrellia bacteria, which are carried by ticks. When ticks infected with this bacteria bite humans, the bacteria can be transmitted into the bloodstream, causing an illness known as Lyme disease. The symptoms of Lyme disease include fever, headache, fatigue, and joint and muscle pain. One of the most noticeable signs is a rash that looks like a series of red rings radiating out from the bite. This usually appears a week after the tick bite. However, not everyone with Lyme disease gets this rash. The good news is that Lyme disease can be treated with antibiotics. Most people recover quickly and fully. However, if Lyme disease is not treated properly, patients can suffer from debilitating symptoms weeks, months, and even years after the bite. This condition is known as post-treatment Lyme disease (PTLD) or chronic Lyme disease (CLD). To protect yourself from Lyme disease, always cover your skin with clothing or insect repellent when hiking or camping. If you get bitten by a tick, remove the tick right away; most cases of Lyme disease require the tick to be attached for 36 to 48 hours. If red rings appear, see a doctor right away. Lyme disease can be harmful, but it is preventable and treatable with early intervention. Question: What is the primary purpose of this passage?

Soda Ban Cigarettes. Alcohol. Drugs. Most people agree that these things should be kept away from children and only consumed by adults in limited quantities, if at all. Is the same thing true for soda? A 20-ounce-bottle of soda has over sixteen teaspoons of sugar in it. This is twice the amount of sugar that the American Heart Association recommends a person should eat in an entire day. Furthermore, this 20-ounce bottle of soda delivers over 200 calories and no nutritive value; soda contains no vitamins, minerals, fiber, protein, or other nutrients. Drinking sodas and other sugary beverages can cause serious health problems. Consuming too many of these sugar-filled beverages may increase your risk for developing Type 2 diabetes, obesity, heart disease, tooth decay, and certain kinds of cancer. Studies have also shown that people who drink soda tend to develop a condition known as metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is a condition characterized by excess abdominal fat, high blood pressure, elevated blood sugar, high levels of triglycerides, and low levels of HDL cholesterol (commonly referred to as "good cholesterol"). Some places have already taken steps to reduce the amount of soda people consume. In California, for example, cafeterias and vending machines in grade schools can not sell soda. The city of Philadelphia also recently added a tax on sugary beverages, making sodas more expensive to purchase. Soda may taste good, but it is terrible for your health. There should be more bans and taxes to keep people from drinking these harmful beverages. Which detail supports the idea that soda is bad for one's health?

Dreams The average adult spends almost two full hours every night dreaming. Dreams mainly occur during a period known as REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. While you are in REM sleep, your brain is very active-almost as active as if you were awake. The fact that we dream most often during REM sleep is one of the very few facts about dreams that every scientist agrees on. Scientists do not know exactly which portion of the brain creates dreams or even why we have them in the first place. One theory about their purpose is that dreaming helps the brain to organize and store memories. As your body relaxes, your brain processes all of the information it received during the day. While you sleep, your brain organizes the information into memories; your mind perceives this process as dreaming. Because your mind works differently when you are asleep than it does when you are awake, your dreams may seem confusing, illogical, or just downright silly. Another theory is that dreams allow your mind to work out difficult problems that you encounter while you are awake. The unrealistic, free-flowing nature of dreams allows your mind to consider the problems in creative ways that you would likely never think of during your waking hours. Still, other scientists believe that dreams are random events with no real function. According to this theory, there is no actual reason for dreaming-it is simply what happens when you go to sleep. As you can see, there is no scientific consensus about how or why we dream. There are many different theories, but no proven answers. Until then, you might as well just enjoy the fantastic nighttime adventures you get to go on without ever leaving your bed. Question:  What is the meaning of the word consensus in the last paragraph?

Women in Clinical Trials When new drugs or medical procedures are ready to be tested on human subjects, researchers find volunteers for clinical trials. However, far more men than women are used as subjects during these trials. It was widely assumed for many years that women and men would respond to medication in the same way. Therefore, it did not seem to matter whether men or women were participating in clinical trials. Because of this, researchers mostly drew from pools of male volunteers because they were perceived to be more low-risk (and accordingly, less expensive to include in a trial). Women who are pregnant, nursing, post-menopausal or even simply of childbearing age are considered too "risky" to participate in clinical trials. These parameters essentially eliminate all women. However, it is difficult to determine whether this decision to eliminate women was made out of beneficence or paternalism. The main problem with this gender discrepancy is that men and women are physiologically different. Their bodies process medications and respond to treatments differently. The over-representation of men in clinical trials has impeded the progress of understanding how new medications will affect women. Question: What is the main idea of the passage?

Preventing Heart Disease Heart disease is a life-threatening condition that kills millions of people every year. In fact, heart disease is the number one killer of human beings worldwide; over thirty percent of deaths every year are due to some form of cardiovascular disease. Although there are many different types of medications and surgical procedures that can treat heart disease, prevention is the most important factor in reducing the number of deaths. Proper nutrition is important in preventing heart disease. The recommended diet for a healthy heart is low in saturated fats, cholesterol, salt, and refined sugar. The diet should be high in fiber, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Smoking and excessive alcohol consumption should be avoided. Smoking increases the risk for heart disease at least ten-fold, and drinking too much alcohol can raise the levels of some fats in the blood and lead to high blood pressure and increase the risk of cardiovascular damage. Lack of physical exercise can also make a person more likely to suffer from heart disease. Participating regularly in aerobic exercise, which can include walking, jogging, dancing, or swimming significantly reduces the risk of heart disease. Another contributor to heart disease is stress. Constant stress can expose your body to persistently elevated levels of the stress hormones cortisol and adrenaline. High levels of these hormones can increase blood pressure and damage artery walls. Engaging in yoga, meditation, or other relaxation techniques can be helpful in reducing stress and lowering the risk of heart disease. Question: What is the primary purpose of the passage?

Autism and Vaccines Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a range of psychological conditions characterized by challenges with social interaction, behavior, speech, and nonverbal communication. While there is no general consensus among medical professionals about the underlying causes of ASD, theories range from genetic inheritance to environmental factors. One of the most controversial theories to have emerged in recent times is that ASD could be caused by the MMR [mumps, measles, rubella] vaccine that was first developed in the 1960s. The vaccine is a mixture of three live viruses and is administered via injection to children when they are one year old. By the late 1990s, this vaccination had led to the near-eradication of measles in countries that employed widespread inoculation. However, a combination of spurious scientific data and alarmist media attention led to an entirely preventable resurgence in measles cases in the early 21^st century. The first claims of a connection between the MMR vaccine and autism were made in 1998, when an article in The Lancet, a respected British medical journal, reported on eight cases of autism that could possibly be traced back to the administration of an MMR vaccine. An onslaught of media coverage followed the publication of this article. The popular press quickly seized upon this story; in 2002, over 1200 articles were written about the link between MMR vaccines and ASD. Less than 30% of these articles, however, mentioned that an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence suggested that these vaccinations were completely safe. Question: Which of the following can be inferred, based on information found in the passage?