Exam 4: HESI-A2-Reading

Trans fats Trans fats are unsaturated fats found in many processed foods. Though their prevalence makes them a part of many people's diet, excessive consumption of trans fats can lead to a variety of serious health problems. Certain trans fats are found naturally in some animal products, such as beef and milk. However, the main source of trans fats for many people is processed foods. Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils are trans fats that are often found in shortening, packaged baked goods, and fried foods. Restaurants and food manufacturers often choose to use partially hydrogenated oils because they are less expensive, have longer shelf lives, and require less refrigeration than non-hydrogenated oils. Although trans fats may be less expensive for food manufacturers to use, and thus cheaper for consumers to purchase, excessive intake of these substances can cause significant health risks. Like saturated fat, trans fat raises the level of LDL ("bad") cholesterol in the body. Unlike saturated fat, however, trans fat also lowers the amount of HDL ("good") cholesterol in the body. Therefore, trans fat has a far more negative overall effect on cholesterol levels in the human body than saturated fat. Studies have also linked consumption of trans fats to increased risk of heart disease, diabetes, obesity, cancer, liver dysfunction, depression, and memory disorders. Why would the author include the detail regarding the use of partially hydrogenated oils in the restaurant setting at the end of paragraph 2?

Garlic Breath Anyone who has ever had a delicious piece of garlic bread knows that there is a price to pay for eating it: the dreaded garlic breath. What makes garlic so good at making your breath smell so bad? The main culprit is a compound called allyl methyl sulfide. As your body digests the garlic, the sulfide is released into your bloodstream. From there, it travels through your body until it is eliminated through your digestive system, your urine, or out of your pores. However, some of the allyl methyl sulfide also crosses from the bloodstream into the air that fills your lungs. As you breathe this air out, the garlic smell goes with it. This is why no matter how many pieces of gum you chew, how often you brush your teeth, or how much mouthwash you swish, a garlicky meal can give you stinky breath for days. Recent research shows that the best way to combat the effects of garlic on your breath is to eat a raw apple or some raw mint leaves while you consume garlic. Both apples and mint leaves contain polyphenolic compounds that can neutralize the allyl methyl sulfides in garlic. Question: What is the primary purpose of this passage?

Fibromyalgia Fibromyalgia is a chronic condition that affects an estimated 3-6% of the world's population. The disorder is characterized by both physiological and psychological symptoms, including nerve pain, fatigue, sleep and mood disturbances, headaches, bowel problems, and incontinence. The exact cause of fibromyalgia is unknown. For some people, fibromyalgia symptoms begin after some sort of physical or psychological stress. However, for others, the onset of symptoms is gradual. Research has shown that genetics may play a part, but there is also evidence that environmental factors can contribute. The wide variety of symptoms made it difficult to diagnose and treat for many years, though recent research has made some promising advances. Although a cure for fibromyalgia has not yet been developed, research has shown that some of the symptoms can be treated with pharmaceuticals, such as tricyclics or gabapentinoids, or non-pharmacological methods, such as meditation, mindfulness, and cognitive behavior therapy. The most successful pharmacological treatment for fibromyalgia has been tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline and nortriptyline. These drugs increase the levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine, which are often found at decreased levels in the brains of people who suffer from chronic pain. By boosting endorphins and relaxing muscles, tricyclics can ease some of the musculoskeletal pain felt by people with fibromyalgia. Question: What is the best summary of the passage?

The Science of Taste Have you ever looked at your tongue in a mirror? If so, you have probably noticed that it is bumpy. The bumps on your tongue are called papillae. Each one of the papillae contains hundreds of taste buds. You also have taste buds on the roof of your mouth and on your epiglottis, which is located at the top of your throat. The taste buds send messages to your brain that tell you about its basic flavor-that is, whether you are eating something salty, sweet, bitter, sour, or umami. Umami is hard to describe, but it is most often called a "meaty" or "savory" flavor. Foods with an umami flavor include meat broth, cheese, and soy sauce. Your mouth and tongue also have receptors that send information about things besides the basic flavors of food. Your mouth has temperature receptor cells that can tell whether a food is piping hot or ice cold. Other receptors give information about the texture of food or how spicy it is. But just being able to tell whether what you are eating is sour, cold, crunchy, or spicy is not truly tasting the food. For example, orange soda and root beer are both sweet, cold, and bubbly, but they do not taste the same. In order to get the full flavor of your food, you also need to use your sense of smell. The upper part of your nose contains special cells called olfactory receptors. They send messages about what things smell like to your brain. As you chew your food, chemicals quickly travel to the olfactory receptors in your nose. When your brain gets information from both the olfactory receptors and the taste buds, you experience the full flavor of what you are eating. Question: What could be a summary of the passage?

The Science of Taste Have you ever looked at your tongue in a mirror? If so, you have probably noticed that it is bumpy. The bumps on your tongue are called papillae. Each one of the papillae contains hundreds of taste buds. You also have taste buds on the roof of your mouth and on your epiglottis, which is located at the top of your throat. The taste buds send messages to your brain that tell you about its basic flavor-that is, whether you are eating something salty, sweet, bitter, sour, or umami. Umami is hard to describe, but it is most often called a "meaty" or "savory" flavor. Foods with an umami flavor include meat broth, cheese, and soy sauce. Your mouth and tongue also have receptors that send information about things besides the basic flavors of food. Your mouth has temperature receptor cells that can tell whether a food is piping hot or ice cold. Other receptors give information about the texture of food or how spicy it is. But just being able to tell whether what you are eating is sour, cold, crunchy, or spicy is not truly tasting the food. For example, orange soda and root beer are both sweet, cold, and bubbly, but they do not taste the same. In order to get the full flavor of your food, you also need to use your sense of smell. The upper part of your nose contains special cells called olfactory receptors. They send messages about what things smell like to your brain. As you chew your food, chemicals quickly travel to the olfactory receptors in your nose. When your brain gets information from both the olfactory receptors and the taste buds, you experience the full flavor of what you are eating. Question: Why does the author include the detail "orange soda and root beer are both sweet, cold, and bubbly, but they do not taste the same"? A)To support the idea that receptors can tell whether a food is sweet. B)To support the notion that the olfactory receptors also play a part in getting flavor. C)To provide an example of sending the full flavor to the brain. D)To support the idea that being able to understand flavor is not truly tasting food.

Sports Drinks When you sweat heavily, your body loses electrolytes and water. The most important electrolytes are potassium and sodium-these substances keep your body's cells working properly. Commercials for sports drinks claim that their products will replenish the electrolytes lost during exercise. However, sports drinks are not really necessary for most people. Eating a normal diet that contains healthy amounts of sodium and potassium will maintain the electrolyte balance in your body. Unless you are exercising very intensely for more than 60 minutes, you do not need to use a sports drink to replace lost electrolytes. Most people believe that sports drinks are healthy beverages-after all, if athletes drink them, they must be good for you. On the contrary, sports drinks are filled with artificial ingredients and sugar. One 20-ounce bottle of an average sports drink contains 34 grams of sugar and 130 calories. These empty calories can actually cause you to gain weight instead of helping to keep you fit. One study presented at the 2012 Obesity Society's annual scientific meeting revealed that teenagers gained an average of 3.5 pounds every two years just by consuming a bottle of sports drink every day. The best beverage for you to drink before, during, or after a workout is water. Water has no sugar, no salt, no calories, and no artificial flavors or colors. Water will rehydrate your body and quench your thirst better than any other drink. Unless you are a serious athlete who regularly exercises for more than 60 minutes at a time, sports drinks ultimately do more harm than good. Question: Which word or phrase would best replace 'quench' in the third paragraph?

Running vs. Walking Running is one of the best ways to get exercise. You do not need to join a gym or buy expensive equipment to go for a run. But you might be surprised to learn that walking can be just as good for you as running. In fact, going for a walk might be even better for you than going for a run. Running can help lower your blood pressure and reduce your risk for heart disease. However, recent research by the American Heart Association shows that walking is just as good for your heart as running. A brisk walk can lower the risk for heart disease, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol just as much as running does. The only catch? You have to walk for twice as long as you would run. In order to get the benefits of a 15-minute run, you need to walk for 30 minutes. Walking is just as good as running when it comes to cardiac health, but there are other ways in which walking can actually be better for you than running. Running can be tough on your body, especially your joints. In fact, a recent study published by the American College of Sports Medicine shows that as many as 40 to 50 percent of runners suffer a running-related injury every year. Walking does have some advantages over running. However, one thing is for sure: either one is better for you than sitting on a couch! Question: What is the main idea of the passage?

GMOs GMOs, or genetically modified organisms, are organisms whose genes have been altered in laboratories. Scientists modify the genetic codes of plants or animals by inserting copies of desirable genes into the organism's DNA. While modifying organisms in a laboratory is a relatively new scientific development, people have been experimenting with genetics on plants and animals for centuries. For example, cattle ranchers have selectively bred their animals to produce cows that give more milk. Although some people fear the "Frankenstein" nature of GMOs, there is no scientific evidence to suggest that GMO-based foods are harmful for human consumption. In fact, there are several reasons to believe that GMOs are actually quite beneficial. Through genetic modification, scientists can breed species of plants or animals that yield hardier, more abundant, or even more nutritious food. Geneticists have been able to produce rice plants that can survive droughts and wheat plants that are naturally pest-resistant. Some genetically modified foods have been engineered to have higher levels of specific nutrients, such as protein or calcium. Proponents of GMOs argue that these kinds of advances might one day help to end world hunger. Furthermore, genetically modified crops and animals can be bred to require fewer natural resources and produce less waste. This means that GMOs might also be better for the environment. Question: Which of the following is a statement of the author's opinion, and not a statement of fact?

Light Pollution I grew up in the city, a place so full of streetlights, spotlights, and searchlights that the sky was never dark enough to see the Milky Way. But last year, I went on a camping trip through the Grand Canyon. When I saw the night sky for the first time, I was in awe. I could not believe how many stars there were. As cities push farther and farther into the wilderness, they create light pollution, the brightening of the night sky by artificial light sources. Light pollution not only hinders our ability to see the beauty of the stars, but it might be causing other problems as well. Light pollution also disrupts the lives of certain animals. For example, too much artificial light can prevent newly-hatched sea turtles from finding the ocean. Owls and other birds that hunt at night can injure themselves by flying into brightly lit buildings. So what is the solution? Obviously, we cannot turn off all of the lights every night. But we can reduce the amount of light we send into the sky. Homeowners should use motion sensors on outdoor lights. Cities should turn off (or at least dim) streetlights after midnight. Businesses and office buildings should turn off their lights when they close for the day. Turning off the lights will help animals and restore the night sky to its former glory. Question: Which of the following is true according to the passage?

Fibromyalgia Fibromyalgia is a chronic condition that affects an estimated 3-6% of the world's population. The disorder is characterized by both physiological and psychological symptoms, including nerve pain, fatigue, sleep and mood disturbances, headaches, bowel problems, and incontinence. The exact cause of fibromyalgia is unknown. For some people, fibromyalgia symptoms begin after some sort of physical or psychological stress. However, for others, the onset of symptoms is gradual. Research has shown that genetics may play a part, but there is also evidence that environmental factors can contribute. The wide variety of symptoms made it difficult to diagnose and treat for many years, though recent research has made some promising advances. Although a cure for fibromyalgia has not yet been developed, research has shown that some of the symptoms can be treated with pharmaceuticals, such as tricyclics or gabapentinoids, or non-pharmacological methods, such as meditation, mindfulness, and cognitive behavior therapy. The most successful pharmacological treatment for fibromyalgia has been tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline and nortriptyline. These drugs increase the levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine, which are often found at decreased levels in the brains of people who suffer from chronic pain. By boosting endorphins and relaxing muscles, tricyclics can ease some of the musculoskeletal pain felt by people with fibromyalgia. Question: Which of the following is true according to the passage?

BMercury in Fish Mercury is a highly toxic metal found in neon signs, fluorescent lights, older thermometers, and certain kinds of telescopes. It can also be found in something that many people eat on a regular basis: fish. The mercury we might find in a can of tuna is most likely an indirect result of the coal industry. Mercury, which is naturally found in coal, is released into the air when coal is burned. It finds its way into waterways via mercury-laced rain. Mercury accumulates in certain kinds of fish through a process called biomagnification. Biomagnification occurs when a substance enters the food chain in small amounts at the very bottom and then increases in concentration in animals higher up on the food chain. Once a fish eats another creature containing mercury, the mercury does not leave that fish's body but instead is stored in fat. Therefore, the mercury continually accumulates as more mercury-contaminated fish are eaten. Despite the toxicity of mercury and the widespread nature of fish contamination, there is no need for the public to be overly apprehensive. Many popular fish, such as salmon, catfish, or tilapia, are generally safe to eat. Other fish, especially tuna and grouper, should only be eaten in moderation. Young children and pregnant women should be especially cautious about how many servings of mercury-contaminated fish they have per week. It is recommended that people in these groups not eat more than 2 servings of mercury-contaminated fish per week. Fish with the highest levels of mercury include shark, swordfish, and king mackerel. All people should avoid eating large amounts of these kinds of fish, and no one should eat these fish more frequently than once a month. Question: What can be inferred about a salmon that has eaten another mercury-contaminated fish?

The Pilomotor Reflex Have you ever experienced the pilomotor reflex? Chances are that you have. The pilomotor reflex is actually something most people experience every day: goose bumps. Goose bumps (also called goose flesh and goose pimples) are small bumps on the skin. They are created when tiny muscles beneath the hairs on your skin contract, pulling the hair into an upright position. They can occur anywhere that you have hair on your body, but they are most common on your arms and legs. Goose bumps are an involuntary reaction to many different sensations, such as cold, fear, or even happiness. Humans are not the only animals that get goose bumps. When cats or dogs are threatened by an enemy, the pilomotor reflex will cause their fur to stand on end. This makes the animal look larger, which might scare away the enemy. Porcupines also experience the pilomotor reflex; a frightened porcupine will raise its quills when it is in danger. This not only makes the porcupine look bigger, it frightens enemies away by drawing attention to the sharp quills. The pilomotor reflex can also help animals stay warm by trapping body heat closer to their skin. Because human beings have much less body hair than most other animals, goose bumps do not make us seem larger or more intimidating. They also do not help to keep us very warm, although they do help to prevent some heat from leaving the body. For the most part, the pilomotor reflex is much more important for animals than it is for people. In fact, many scientists think that the pilomotor reflex is actually completely useless for humans. Question: What is true about the pilomotor reflex?

The Spread of Yellow Fever Yellow fever is a dangerous disease that is primarily found in tropical climates. Sometimes, people infected with yellow fever suffer only mild flu-like symptoms. In other cases, however, yellow fever can be much more serious, causing kidney problems, liver failure, and sometimes, even death. For many years, people believed that the disease was spread from person to person, much like the cold or flu. However, this was not the case. It took the dedicated research of a doctor named Carlos Juan Finlay to show people how to prevent a disease that was killing people by the thousands. In the 1800's, yellow fever was a serious threat to Cuba's population. Because people believed that the disease was spread from person to person, they tried to prevent the spread of the disease by quarantining people. However, this did not help. Dr) Finlay had a different hypothesis. He noticed the worst outbreaks of yellow fever happened when mosquitoes were most active. This led him to theorize that mosquitoes spread the disease, not people. This was a revolutionary idea; no one had considered the possibility of mosquitoes being vectors of disease. In fact, the idea was so revolutionary that no one believed Finlay for over 20 years. Eventually, Finlay's theory was proven. A team of military doctors led by Dr. Walter Reed conducted a series of experiments that proved once and for all that mosquitoes were indeed responsible for spreading yellow fever. Armed with this information, people took new measures to protect themselves from yellow fever. As a result of this discovery, yellow fever has almost completely disappeared from Cuba and many other nations. What is the primary purpose of this passage?

Sports Drinks When you sweat heavily, your body loses electrolytes and water. The most important electrolytes are potassium and sodium-these substances keep your body's cells working properly. Commercials for sports drinks claim that their products will replenish the electrolytes lost during exercise. However, sports drinks are not really necessary for most people. Eating a normal diet that contains healthy amounts of sodium and potassium will maintain the electrolyte balance in your body. Unless you are exercising very intensely for more than 60 minutes, you do not need to use a sports drink to replace lost electrolytes. Most people believe that sports drinks are healthy beverages-after all, if athletes drink them, they must be good for you. On the contrary, sports drinks are filled with artificial ingredients and sugar. One 20-ounce bottle of an average sports drink contains 34 grams of sugar and 130 calories. These empty calories can actually cause you to gain weight instead of helping to keep you fit. One study presented at the 2012 Obesity Society's annual scientific meeting revealed that teenagers gained an average of 3.5 pounds every two years just by consuming a bottle of sports drink every day. The best beverage for you to drink before, during, or after a workout is water. Water has no sugar, no salt, no calories, and no artificial flavors or colors. Water will rehydrate your body and quench your thirst better than any other drink. Unless you are a serious athlete who regularly exercises for more than 60 minutes at a time, sports drinks ultimately do more harm than good. Question: Which piece of information is a result of the 2012 Obesity Society's annual scientific meeting?

GMOs GMOs, or genetically modified organisms, are organisms whose genes have been altered in laboratories. Scientists modify the genetic codes of plants or animals by inserting copies of desirable genes into the organism's DNA. While modifying organisms in a laboratory is a relatively new scientific development, people have been experimenting with genetics on plants and animals for centuries. For example, cattle ranchers have selectively bred their animals to produce cows that give more milk. Although some people fear the "Frankenstein" nature of GMOs, there is no scientific evidence to suggest that GMO-based foods are harmful for human consumption. In fact, there are several reasons to believe that GMOs actually quite beneficial. Through genetic modification, scientists can breed species of plants or animals that yield hardier, more abundant, or even more nutritious food. Geneticists have been able to produce rice plants that can survive droughts and wheat plants that are naturally pest-resistant. Some genetically modified foods have been engineered to have higher levels of specific nutrients, such as protein or calcium. Proponents of GMOs argue that these kinds of advances might one day help to end world hunger. Furthermore, genetically modified crops and animals can be bred to require fewer natural resources and produce less waste. This means that GMOs might also be better for the environment. Question: What is the author's purpose in writing this passage?

Synaesthesia Does the number five smell like lemons? Is the sound of a flute purple? Does the letter "R" taste like cinnamon? These questions might seem strange, but to people with synaesthesia, they make perfect sense. Synaesthesia is a neurological phenomenon where the senses get crossed. People with synaesthesia (also called "synaesthetes") experience this phenomenon in different ways. The most common form of synaesthesia is called color-graphemic synaesthesia. People who experience this form of synaesthesia associate letters and numbers with certain colors. For example, the letter "A" might always appear to be red and the number eight might always look blue. Another common form of synaesthesia is chromesthesia: the association of sounds with colors. Some people who experience this phenomenon see bursts of color when they hear everyday sounds, such as dogs barking or water dripping. Others associate specific colors with different musical notes. Although scientists do not yet understand what causes some people to experience synaesthesia, some researchers argue for something called the cross-activation theory. This theory suggests that the regions of the brain responsible for interpreting information from the different senses have become "crossed," that is, the neurons from one sense inadvertently activate the neurons from another sense. There is also evidence to suggest that synaesthesia is a genetic trait. While there is no treatment for synaesthesia, there is also not much demand for a treatment; most synaesthetes report that they find their condition rather pleasant. Question: What is the meaning of the word inadvertently in the passage?

Sports Drinks When you sweat heavily, your body loses electrolytes and water. The most important electrolytes are potassium and sodium-these substances keep your body's cells working properly. Commercials for sports drinks claim that their products will replenish the electrolytes lost during exercise. However, sports drinks are not really necessary for most people. Eating a normal diet that contains healthy amounts of sodium and potassium will maintain the electrolyte balance in your body. Unless you are exercising very intensely for more than 60 minutes, you do not need to use a sports drink to replace lost electrolytes. Most people believe that sports drinks are healthy beverages-after all, if athletes drink them, they must be good for you. On the contrary, sports drinks are filled with artificial ingredients and sugar. One 20-ounce bottle of an average sports drink contains 34 grams of sugar and 130 calories. These empty calories can actually cause you to gain weight instead of helping to keep you fit. One study presented at the 2012 Obesity Society's annual scientific meeting revealed that teenagers gained an average of 3.5 pounds every two years just by consuming a bottle of sports drink every day. The best beverage for you to drink before, during, or after a workout is water. Water has no sugar, no salt, no calories, and no artificial flavors or colors. Water will rehydrate your body and quench your thirst better than any other drink. Unless you are a serious athlete who regularly exercises for more than 60 minutes at a time, sports drinks ultimately do more harm than good. Question: According to the passage, what could be a negative effect of drinking sports drinks?

Father of Surgery Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi, also known as Albucasis, is considered by many people to be the "Father of Modern Surgery." Al-Zahrawi was born in Spain in 936 CE, a time when Spain was part of the Islamic empire. One of Al-Zahrawi's greatest contributions was the Kitab al-Tasrif, a 30-volume encyclopedia of medical information. The Kitab al-Tasrif took Al-Zahrawi over 50 years to complete. It contains information about a wide variety of illnesses, injuries, medical conditions, treatments, and surgical procedures. His book includes discussions of dentistry, obstetrics, ophthalmology, urology, and cranial surgery, among many others. He even provides illustrations for over 200 different surgical instruments. In the Kitab, Al-Zahrawi presents the first description of an ectopic pregnancy and provides the first evidence that hemophilia is a genetic condition. Surgeons continued to use the information in the Kitab al-Tasrif well into the 1700's. In fact, some of Al-Zahrawi's practices are still being used to this very day. For example, Al-Zahrawi developed a technique to treat gynecomastia (enlarged breast tissue) in men that is still in practice today. Finally, the Kitab also includes something vital for all modern practitioners to keep in mind: a reminder that patients are human beings who must be treated regardless of their wealth or social status. Why does the author include the sentence "…Al-Zahrawi developed a technique to treat gynecomastia…" in paragraph 3?

During the 18th century, toll roads began appearing all over England, spreading from London all the way to Scotland. But these roads were made of small stones piled on top of mud, so even a light rain could render them impassable. A blind engineer named John Metcalf came up with a solution. He insisted that roads have a strong stone foundation. He "crowned" the roads too, meaning that he made them higher in the middle than on the sides. He added a ditch on either side, providing proper drainage to keep the roadways from caving in due to excess moisture. This also prevented potholes. But his methods proved costly and many local governments were loath to pay the construction costs. Undeterred, Metcalf challenged a colonel to race him to London. Thanks to the lousy road conditions, he made it to the city on foot faster than the colonel could get there in his horse-drawn buggy. As a result, towns across England began adopting Metcalf's engineering ideas. Even today, many of these ideas are still in use not only in England but around the world. What is the main idea of the passage?

Does Low Body Temperature Cause Illness? As children, we are often told to dress warmly in the winter so we do not get sick. This is a common piece of advice, but is there any truth behind it? In fact, there is no scientific evidence to suggest that being cold can get you sick. Most illnesses are caused by viruses and bacteria. Illnesses like strep throat, influenza, and the common cold are only spread through contact with other infected people. How cold you are when you come into contact with the virus or bacteria has nothing to do with whether or not you will get sick. The effect of body temperature on contracting illness was tested on human beings in the 1950s. Researchers divided volunteers into two groups: half of them were kept in a warm room and the other half were kept in a cold room. Both groups were then exposed to rhinovirus-the virus responsible for the common cold. The researchers discovered that members of both groups developed colds at the same rate. Since that first experiment, there have been similar experiments performed with a variety of different illnesses. All have yielded the same result: being cold does not make a person more likely to get sick. Of course, it does seem that people do get sick more often when the weather is cold. However, this is because there is some evidence that people do get sick more often in cold weather, but it has nothing to do with forgetting to bundle up when it is chilly. When it is cold outside, people tend to stay inside. With so many people gathered closely together indoors, germs are spread more easily. Germs are spread from person to person, regardless of how cold or warm their bodies are. What is the best summary for the passage?