Exam 14: B: Personality

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The MMPI-2,like its predecessor,consists of ten basic scales,most of which assess mental disorders,such as paranoia,depression,and schizophrenia (see Chapter 15).Hathaway and McKinley developed these scales by means of an empirical (or data-based)method of test construction.Using this approach,researchers begin with two or more criterion groups,such as people with and without a specific psychological disorder,and examine which items best distinguish them.For example,the items on the MMPI depression scale are those that best differentiate patients with clinical depression from nondepressed people.
Psychologists have also developed many structured personality measures using a rational/theoretical method of test construction.In contrast to an empirical approach,this approach requires test developers to begin with a clear-cut conceptualisation of a trait and then write items to assess that conceptualisation.Auke Tellegen (1982)adopted a rational/theoretical approach in constructing the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ)and later used factor analysis to select the best items for this test.The MPQ assesses three major self-reported personality traits related to (1)positive emotions (such as happiness and social intimacy), (2)negative emotions (such as anxiety and anger),and (3)impulse control (Tellegen et al. ,1988).Studies show that the MPQ validly assesses these personality traits;scores on its scales correlate highly with ratings of the same traits by peers.

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--Most humanistic psychologists propose that the core motive in personality is self actualization: the drive to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent.
--Rogers's model of personality.According to Rogers (1947),our personalities consist of three major components: organism,self,and conditions of worth.(1)The organism is our innate genetic blueprint.Rogers viewed the organism as inherently positive and helpful toward others.(2)The self is our self-concept,the set of beliefs about who we are.(3)Conditions of worth are the expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate behaviour.Like the Freudian superego,they emanate from our parents and society,and eventually we internalise them.Conditions of worth arise when others make their acceptance of us conditional-dependent-only on certain behaviours but not others.As a result,we accept ourselves only if we act in specific ways.For Rogers,individual differences in personality stem largely from differences in the conditions of worth that others impose on us.Conditions of worth result in incongruence between self and organism.Incongruence means that our personalities are inconsistent with our innate dispositions: We're not our true selves.
--Maslow: The characteristics of self-actualized people.Whereas Rogers focused largely on pathological individuals whose tendencies toward self-actualisation were thwarted,Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)focused on individuals who were self-actualized,especially historical figures.According to Maslow (1970),self-actualised people tend to be creative,spontaneous,and accepting of themselves and others.They're self-confident but not self-centred.They focus on real-world and intellectual problems and have a few deep friendships rather than many superficial ones.Self-actualized individuals typically crave privacy and can come off as introverted,aloof,or even difficult to deal with because they've outgrown the need to be popular.As a consequence,they're not afraid to "rock the boat" when necessary or express unpopular opinions.They're also prone to peak experiences-transcendent moments of intense excitement and tranquility marked by a profound sense of connection to the world.