Question 1

Discuss how we study heritability.

Accepted Answer

Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit.
--Behaviour genetic designs allow us to estimate the heritability of traits and diseases.By heritability,we mean the extent to which genes contribute to differences in a trait among individuals.Some traits,like height,are highly heritable.In contrast,other traits,like the accent in our speech,are due almost entirely to environment.That's because our accents are almost entirely a product of the dialect spoken in the community in which we're raised.
--Heritability isn't as simple a concept as it seems,and it confuses even some psychologists.The first misconception is that heritability applies to a single individual rather than differences among individuals.That's because heritability is a statistic that applies only to groups of people.Heritability tells us about the causes of differences among people,not within a person.A second misconception is that heritability tells us whether a trait can be changed.Many laypeople believe that if a trait is highly heritable,then by definition we can't change it.Yet,logically speaking,heritability says little or nothing about how malleable or alterable a trait is.In fact,a trait can,in principle,have a heritability of 100 percent,yet still be extremely malleable.
--Scientists estimate heritability by means of one of three behavioural genetic designs: family studies,twin studies,and adoption studies.In such studies,scientists note the presence or absence of a behavioural trait or a psychological disorder among different relatives.These studies determine how much genetics contributes to the expression of that trait or disorder.In a family study,researchers examine the extent to which a trait "runs" or goes together in intact families,those in which all family members are raised in the same home.We can study correlations in a trait between two types of twins.Consequently,if identical twins are more alike on a psychological characteristic,such as intelligence or extraversion,than are fraternal twins,we can infer that this characteristic is genetically influenced.Nevertheless,twin studies hinge on the "equal environments assumption"-the assumption that the environmental influences on the characteristic we're studying are the same on identical as on fraternal twins.Adoption studies,which examine the extent to which children adopted into new homes resemble their adoptive as opposed biological parents.Children adopted into other homes are genetically similar to their biological relatives,but they don't share the same environment with their biological relatives.As a consequence,if adopted children resemble their biological parents on a psychological characteristic,we can typically assume that it's genetically influenced.

Question 2

Identify and describe the main hormones and functions associated with the following parts of the endocrine system: the pituitary gland,adrenal gland,and sexual reproductive glands.

Accepted Answer

Answers will vary but should contain the following points for full credit.
--Pituitary: master gland,influenced by oxytocin (stretching the cervix during birth and related to lactation),may play a role in romantic love;pituitary hormones stimulate glands throughout endocrine system to release their respective hormones,also releases growth hormone,which influences height
--Adrenal glands: synthesize and release adrenaline (boosts energy production in muscles and conserving energy outside of muscles),cortisol (increases in response to stress,regulates blood pressure,heart functioning,and nutrient absorption),and small amounts of androgens
--Sexual glands: testosterone (related to increases in sex drive in both men and women)and estrogen (highest around ovulation in females)

Question 3

Describe four of the common neurotransmitters and what their major functional roles are.

Accepted Answer

Answers will vary but should contain any four of the following points for full credit.
--Glutamate: rapidly excites neural activity,relay of sensory information and learning
--GABA: inhibits neurons,related to many anti-anxiety drugs
--Acetylcholine: involved with muscle contraction,cortical arousal,and learning/memory
--Norepinephrine: involved in cortical arousal,may play a role in disorders
--Dopamine: linked to motor function and reward systems,involved with disorders
--Serotonin: important for mood regulation,aggression,temperature regulation,and sleep/wake cycles
--Endorphins: involved in pain reduction,natural opiates in body
--Anandamide: involved with eating,motivation,memory,and sleep (as well as pain reduction),binds to same receptors as the THC in marijuana

Question 4

You are walking in the woods when,suddenly,you see a snake in your path.It looks dangerous.Upon closer examination,you realize it is harmless.Explain the order of activation of the peripheral nervous system and the associated physiological reactions that occurred during this process.

Accepted Answer