Question 1

Josh believes that he will be more likely than his friends to graduate from university, earn a PhD, and get a high paying job. What concept defines this tendency to be overly positive? What are the potential hazards to being overly positive?

Accepted Answer

The concept that defines this tendency to be overly positive about one's own prospects in comparison to others is known as "optimism bias." Optimism bias is a cognitive bias that causes a person to believe that they are at a lesser risk of experiencing a negative event compared to others. It also leads individuals to overestimate the likelihood of positive outcomes for themselves.

While optimism can be beneficial in many ways, such as improving mental health and motivation, there are potential hazards to being overly positive:

1. **Unrealistic Expectations**: Overly optimistic individuals may set unrealistic goals or expectations, which can lead to disappointment and frustration when those expectations are not met.

2. **Poor Risk Assessment**: Optimism bias can lead to underestimating risks and overestimating one's ability to handle them. This might result in inadequate preparation for potential challenges, both in personal and professional contexts.

3. **Inadequate Planning**: If a person is too positive about future outcomes, they might not plan sufficiently for possible obstacles or setbacks, which could jeopardize their long-term success.

4. **Financial Overconfidence**: Over-optimism can lead to risky financial behaviors, such as overspending or making poor investment decisions, under the assumption that things will always work out favorably.

5. **Health Risks**: People with an optimism bias might engage in riskier health behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, or unhealthy eating, because they believe they are less likely to suffer the consequences compared to others.

6. **Neglect of Feedback**: Being overly positive might cause individuals to dismiss constructive criticism or negative feedback, which is essential for personal growth and improvement.

7. **Strained Relationships**: Over-optimism can strain relationships if an individual's expectations of others are unrealistically high or if they fail to understand the concerns and perspectives of more risk-averse friends or partners.

It's important to strike a balance between optimism and realism. Being aware of optimism bias can help individuals temper their expectations and make more informed decisions by considering both the potential upsides and downsides of any given situation.

Question 2

Define the self-concept. How are our self-concepts shaped by others? Be sure to refer to the looking-glass self in your answer.

Accepted Answer

The self-concept refers to the beliefs and perceptions we have about ourselves. It includes our thoughts about our abilities, personality traits, values, and overall identity. Our self-concept is shaped by various factors, including our own experiences, interactions with others, and societal influences.

One way in which our self-concept is shaped by others is through the concept of the "looking-glass self," which was developed by sociologist Charles Cooley. According to this concept, our self-concept is influenced by how we believe others perceive us. In other words, we develop our self-concept based on the feedback and reactions we receive from others.

For example, if we receive positive feedback and validation from others, we are likely to develop a positive self-concept. Conversely, if we experience criticism or negative reactions from others, it can lead to a more negative self-concept. This process of internalizing the perceptions of others can have a significant impact on our self-esteem and overall sense of self.

In addition to the looking-glass self, our self-concept is also shaped by social comparisons and the influence of social norms and expectations. We may compare ourselves to others and internalize societal standards of success, beauty, and worth, which can impact how we see ourselves.

Overall, our self-concept is not solely determined by our own thoughts and beliefs, but is also influenced by the perceptions and feedback we receive from others. This highlights the importance of positive and supportive interactions in shaping a healthy and positive self-concept.

Question 3

Briefly define self-perception theory.

Accepted Answer

Self-perception theory is a psychological concept that suggests individuals develop their attitudes and opinions by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused them. This theory was proposed by psychologist Daryl Bem in the late 1960s as an alternative to cognitive dissonance theory.

According to self-perception theory, when people are unsure of their own attitudes or feelings, they infer them by looking at their behavior and the context in which it occurred. For example, if a person notices that they often choose to attend environmental rallies, they might conclude that they care deeply about environmental issues. This is especially true in situations where the internal cues are weak, ambiguous, or uninterpretable.

The theory posits that people draw conclusions about themselves in much the same way that they make inferences about others based on observed behavior. It challenges the traditional notion that attitudes always precede and guide behaviors, suggesting instead that sometimes behavior can lead to attitude formation or change.

Self-perception theory has been used to explain various phenomena, including the effects of overjustification (when external rewards can diminish intrinsic motivation) and the impact of role-playing on attitude change. It has implications for understanding how people come to know themselves and how they may change their self-concept based on their actions and choices.

Question 4

Researchers have found that in online dating profiles women are more likely to underreport ____________, while men are more likely to over-report ____________.

Accepted Answer

A)   income; weight
B)   income; height
C)   weight; age
D)   weight; height

Question 5

Who coined the term looking-glass self?

Accepted Answer

A)   Charles H. Cooley
B)   George Herbert Mead
C)   George Mead.
D)   Albert Bandura.

Question 6

In general, how will a large gap between the ideal self and the actual self impact a person's self-image?

Accepted Answer

A)   A large gap between the ideal and actual self will positively impact a person's self-image.
B)   A large gap between the ideal and actual self will have no effect on a person's self-image.
C)   A large gap between the ideal and actual self will negatively impact a person's self-image.
D)   People do not usually have large gaps between their ideal self and their actual self.

Question 7

Which of the following would you do if you wanted to increase Jim's self-awareness?

Accepted Answer

A)   Place Jim in front a mirror
B)   Place Jim in front of a crowd of people
C)   Videotape Jim
D)   Placing Jim in front of a mirror, in front of a crowd, or videotaping him will increase his self-awareness.

Question 8

Describe a situation from your own life where you might be likely to engage in CORFing. Be sure to explain what CORFing is in your answer.

Accepted Answer

The answer of Describe a situation from your own life...

Question 9

Which of the following people is most likely to be from a culture emphasizing collectivism?

Accepted Answer

A)   Megan, who describes herself foremost as a creative and unique individual
B)   George, who plans to move far away from home to start his own business
C)   Jennifer, who plans to devote her time to supporting the family business
D)   Barbara, who only visits with her family on special occasions

Question 10

We want others to see us as we see ourselves, but not if we hold a negative view of the self.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 11

If David spends time at the gym because he enjoys exercising, then he is intrinsically motivated.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 12

Self-efficacy is a person's evaluation of his or her self-worth.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 13

If you acted consistently across situations and behaved according to your own personal views you would be considered:

Accepted Answer

A)   high in self-monitoring.
B)   low in self-monitoring.
C)   low in self-esteem.
D)   high in self-efficacy.

Question 14

Sally is engaging in downward social comparison when she compares the B she received on her final exam to her friend's C-.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 15

Briefly compare and contrast the influence of social evaluations (i.e., feedback that is accepting or rejecting) on self-esteem across genders.

Accepted Answer

The answer of Briefly compare and contrast the influence of...

Question 16

We often think that our beliefs, appearance, and our internal states are obvious to other people. This is known as ____________.

Accepted Answer

A)   a self-serving attribution
B)   the spotlight effect
C)   social comparison
D)   self-monitoring

Question 17

Your mental representation or overall sense of 'you' is known as your _____________.

Accepted Answer

A)   self-schema
B)   self-esteem
C)   self-concept
D)   social schema

Question 18

One way people cope with failure is to blame external factors for a negative event.

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Question 19

Derek was asked to choose between two women to take on a date. He chose a woman who was open, outgoing, and highly unattractive over a woman who was shy, self-centered, and highly attractive. According to this information Derek is most likely:

Accepted Answer

A)   a high self-monitor.
B)   a low self-monitor.
C)   intrinsically motivated.
D)   extrinsically motivated.

Question 20

BIRGing is a strategy by which we reinforce our positive self-concepts by identifying ourselves with successful others

Accepted Answer

A) True 
 B)False

Exam 4: The Self

Josh believes that he will be more likely than his friends to graduate from university, earn a PhD, and get a high paying job. What concept defines this tendency to be overly positive? What are the potential hazards to being overly positive?

Define the self-concept. How are our self-concepts shaped by others? Be sure to refer to the looking-glass self in your answer.

Briefly define self-perception theory.

Researchers have found that in online dating profiles women are more likely to underreport , while men are more likely to over-report .

Who coined the term looking-glass self?

In general, how will a large gap between the ideal self and the actual self impact a person's self-image?

Which of the following would you do if you wanted to increase Jim's self-awareness?

Describe a situation from your own life where you might be likely to engage in CORFing. Be sure to explain what CORFing is in your answer.

Which of the following people is most likely to be from a culture emphasizing collectivism?

We want others to see us as we see ourselves, but not if we hold a negative view of the self.

If David spends time at the gym because he enjoys exercising, then he is intrinsically motivated.

Self-efficacy is a person's evaluation of his or her self-worth.

If you acted consistently across situations and behaved according to your own personal views you would be considered:

Sally is engaging in downward social comparison when she compares the B she received on her final exam to her friend's C-.

Briefly compare and contrast the influence of social evaluations (i.e., feedback that is accepting or rejecting) on self-esteem across genders.

We often think that our beliefs, appearance, and our internal states are obvious to other people. This is known as ____________.

Your mental representation or overall sense of 'you' is known as your _____________.

One way people cope with failure is to blame external factors for a negative event.

Derek was asked to choose between two women to take on a date. He chose a woman who was open, outgoing, and highly unattractive over a woman who was shy, self-centered, and highly attractive. According to this information Derek is most likely:

BIRGing is a strategy by which we reinforce our positive self-concepts by identifying ourselves with successful others