Exam 15: The Ferment of Reform and Culture,1790-1860

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Elizabeth Blackwell was a pioneering figure in the field of medicine and is historically significant for being the first woman to receive a medical degree in the United States. Born on February 3, 1821, in Bristol, England, Blackwell moved with her family to the United States in her youth. She was motivated to pursue medicine after a close friend who was dying suggested she would have preferred to have a female physician.

Despite facing significant discrimination and resistance, Blackwell applied to numerous medical schools and was eventually accepted by Geneva Medical College in New York, largely due to the male students thinking her application was a joke and voting to admit her as a prank. She graduated first in her class in 1849, thus breaking the gender barrier in the traditionally male-dominated medical profession.

Blackwell's achievements did not stop with her graduation. She continued to blaze trails for women in medicine by:

1. Establishing a small clinic to treat poor women and children in New York City, which later grew into the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children in 1857, with the help of her sister Emily Blackwell, who also became a physician, and colleague Dr. Marie Zakrzewska.

2. During the Civil War, she trained nurses for Union hospitals, contributing to the improvement of nursing standards and practices.

3. In 1868, she opened the Women's Medical College at the New York Infirmary to provide medical education for women, a radical idea at the time.

4. Advocating for the education of women in medicine and public health, she lectured extensively and wrote numerous articles and books on the subject.

5. Returning to England later in life, she became a professor of gynecology at the London School of Medicine for Women, which she had helped to found, further advancing the cause of women in the medical profession.

Elizabeth Blackwell's legacy is not only that she was the first woman to receive a medical degree in the U.S., but also that she worked tirelessly to ensure that other women had the opportunity to pursue careers in medicine. Her efforts helped to open doors for future generations of women in the healthcare field, and she remains an inspiring figure in the history of medicine and women's rights.

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Communitarianism is a social and political philosophy that emphasizes the importance of community in the functioning of political life, in the analysis and evaluation of political institutions, and in understanding human identity and well-being. It arose in the late 20th century as a critique of individualistic approaches to politics and morality, particularly those associated with liberal thought.

The historical significance of communitarianism lies in several key areas:

1. Critique of Liberal Individualism: Communitarian thinkers argue that the liberal focus on individual rights and autonomy neglects the importance of social contexts and communal relationships in shaping individual identities and values. They contend that individuals are not isolated atoms but are deeply embedded in social networks and communities that influence their choices and opportunities.

2. Emphasis on Social Responsibility: Communitarians stress the importance of civic virtue and the responsibilities individuals have to their communities. They advocate for a balance between individual rights and the common good, suggesting that a strong and cohesive community is necessary for the well-being of its members.

3. Influence on Public Policy: Communitarian ideas have influenced debates on public policy, particularly in areas such as welfare reform, education, and community development. Policies that promote community engagement, social capital, and local decision-making often draw on communitarian principles.

4. Response to Globalization: In the face of increasing globalization, communitarians have highlighted the need to preserve local cultures, traditions, and identities. They argue that global economic and cultural forces can undermine local communities and that efforts should be made to protect and strengthen these communal bonds.

5. Ethical Foundations: Communitarianism has contributed to ethical discussions by emphasizing the role of community in shaping moral values. It challenges the idea that ethical principles are solely a matter of individual reasoning, instead asserting that moral norms are grounded in communal practices and traditions.

6. Political Diversity and Debate: By providing a counterpoint to liberal and libertarian ideologies, communitarianism has enriched political discourse and offered alternative perspectives on the role of government, the nature of citizenship, and the structure of society.

In summary, the historical significance of communitarianism lies in its challenge to individualistic philosophies, its advocacy for a community-centered approach to politics and ethics, and its influence on public policy and political thought. It serves as a reminder of the importance of social contexts and communal ties in shaping individual lives and societal well-being.